Mosquitoes, and their control.

              MOSQUITOES
AND
THEIR CONTROL
PREPARED BY
SOLID WASTE a VECTOR CONTROL SECTION
SANITARY ENGINEERING. DIVISION
N.C. STATE BOARD OF HEALTH
MOSQUITOES
AND
THEIR CONTROL
PREPARED BY
SOLID WASTE a VECTOR CONTROL SECTION
SANITARY ENGINEERING DIVISION
N.C. STATE BOARD OF HEALTH
MOSQUITOES
Mosquitoes are considered by most experts to be the most
important insect pest affecting the health of man. They are
found from the Tundra in the north to the Equator and south
to the Antarctic and often occur in such numbers that man and
beast find them intolerable. These blood sucking insects are
responsible for the transmission of several of man's most
dreaded diseases and have prevented the development of many
large areas of the world. Where disease transmission is not an
important factor, the losses to the dairy, cattle, and poultry
industries, the reduction of labor efficiency, the depreciation
of real estate values and the interference with outdoor recrea­tion
makes the mosquito a formidable enemy.
There are fifty or more known species of mosquitoes found in
North Carolina and they differ in size, color and habits in the
same way that birds differ. Some species seldom travel more
than a few hundred feet from their breeding places, while
others may fly many miles. A few mosquitoes only feed on
the nectar of flowers, some only feed on cold blooded animals
such as frogs and snakes, but most species feed on warm
blooded animals, including man. There are species that breed
only in salt marshes while others prefer the margins of fresh
water lakes. Many breed in woodland pools, and the adults
seldom venture into open country, while others are only found
breeding in rock holes. Some highly domesticated species that
live around human habitation only breed in artificial water
holding containers, such as tin cans, discarded automobile
tires, rain barrels, and roof gutters that do not drain properly.
They all have one thing in common. Mosquitoes breed only in
water, regardless of their species. There is a mistaken belief
that they breed in grass, hedges and weeds, because they are
often found resting in such places during the day-time, but
this is due to the protection offered against the sun, wind, and
enemies.
DISEASES TRANSMITTED BY MOSQUITOES
Several of man's most debilitating diseases are transmitted
by mosquitoes and have'retarded the development of many of
the world's nations. Through the efforts of the World Health
Organization, many of these diseases are becoming less signifi­cant
but are nevertheless, dangerous and require our constant
vigilance.
Malaria
The term Malaria is used for a group of four infectious
agents of man-Plasmodium vivax for vivax (benign tertian)
malaria, P. malariae for quartan malaria, P. falciparwm for
falciparum (aestivo-autumnal or malignant tertian) malaria,
and P. ovale for the less common ovale malaria. These four
infectious agents only attack man; however, birds and the
lower primates have their own malaria parasites.
The only means in nature whereby human malaria can
be transmitted from one person to another is by the bite of
an infected mosquito of the Anopheles genus. On a worldwide
basis, it has been proven that numerous species belonging to
this genus carry the disease. While there are several species
of Anopheles mosquitoes in North Carolina, it is believed that
only one, the Anopheles quadrimaculatus, transmits malaria
in this State.
As late as 1936, 150 deaths from this disease were reported
in North Carolina. Extensive mosquito control operations con­ducted
by local health departments, in cooperation with the
North Carolina State Board of Health have resulted in the
near eradication of malaria in the State. In recent years,
however, two or three hundred military cases of malaria have
been reported to the State Board of Health, while no civilian
~ses ?ave occurred. In spite of this gratifying reduction, .it
IS ObVIOUS that it would not be safe to discontinue malarIa
~ontrol activities, as it is possible that the disease could return
m epidemic form. In many parts of the world malaria is still a
public health problem of the greatest magnitude. Present day
~ravel compels us to be continuously on the alert to prevent
ItS becoming re-established.
Yellow Fever
. Historically, this highly fatal disease was of primary
Imp~rtance in North Carolina and the other southern states.
Durmg the last century, epidemics occurred in which thou­:
ands ~f people died. At present, yellow fever (Yellow Jack) l c.onfmed to parts of South America, Central America and
hf~Ica. In 1953 two Brazilian states had 92 verified cases of
w lch 82 dI'ed. The yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegyptt., W88
~ very common species in North Caroiina prior to 1940;
owever, at the present time it is difficult to find. The United
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States Public Health Service, by fumigating airplanes which
come from endemic areas, by requiring immunization for yellow
fever of persons entering this country from infected areas
along with other precautions, has been successful in keeping
yellow fever out of this country.
Arthropod-Borne Viral Encephalitides
Eastern Encephalitis, Western Encephalitis, St. Louis
Encephalitis, and California Encephalitis
The above types of encephalitis are transmitted by mosqui­toes
and are of increasing public health importance due to
their seriousness and the fact that they are being recognized
in areas where they were not formerly known. There is good
evidence to indicate that the disease of horses, Blind Staggers,
which was recognized over 100 years ago was caused by one of
these viruses although they were not isolated until the 1930's.
In the United States, eastern encephalitis, western encephalitis,
and St. Louis encephalitis are the most important of these virus­es.
The first two occur in horses and mules as well as man but the
St. Louis· type affects man without noticeable effect on horses.
Several outbreaks of eastern and western encephalitis have
occurred in horses and man during the past 25 years in the
United States. Human cases of eastern and California encepha­litis
have been reported in North Carolina in recent years.
Present knowledge indicates that birds (principally English
sparrow, grackle, red winged blackbird) serve as natural hosts
and reservoirs, mosquitoes as principal vectors of the encepha­litides,
and that the only way man becomes infected is by the
bite of an infected mosquito. Human cases vary from mild,
inapparent infections to very severe illness with permanent
damage to the brain or other parts of the nervous system or
even death.
Eastern encephalitis is the principal encephalitis in eastern
North Carolina. In general, the distribution of eastern encepha­litis
cases corresponds with the location of favorable Culiseta
melanura mosquito breeding sites, namely, major fresh water
swamps in the low-lying coastal plains. Abundant rainfall
appears conducive to eastern encephalitis outbreaks and prevail­ing
dry conditions tend to inhibit them. Many of the so-called
nuisance mosquitoes in this State have been found naturally
infected with one or more strains of the encephalitides.
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Dengue and Filariasis
These two mosquito-borne diseases are of considerable
importance in tropical and sub-tropical regions but th2ir tran ­mission
in North Carolina has not been recorded.
Animal Diseases Transmitted by. Mosquitoes
Eastern encephalitis infects many horses in North Carolina
and is commonly called Equine Encephalomyelitis.
Bird malaria and fowl pox are two poultry diseases of
importance to the poultry industry and are transmitted by
mosquitoes.
All dog lovers and hunters are familiar with the dog heart
worm which is transmitted by several species of pest mosquitoes.
These worms shorten the useful life of many hunting dogs.
LIFE CYCLE AND HABITS
The Egg
All mosquitoes go through a complete metamorphosis (Egg,
Larva, Pupa, Adult). After mating, which sometimes takes
place while flying, the fertilized female usually must have a
blood meal before her eggs will hatch. The eggs are laid on
water or in places likely to hold water. If not laid directly upon
the water, they will not hatch until the eggs are flooded. Eggs
of Culex mosquitoes are glued together into rafts while th? e
of most other species are laid separately. Sometimes hatchJ?g
takes place in one day but occasionally several weeks are requrr­ed,
the time being dependent upon several factors such a the
species of mosquito, temperature requirements, and the presence
of suitable water.
The Larvae
The larvae, commonly called "wiggle-tails," which are
hatched from the eggs are so small at first that they can bare Y
be seen without the aid of a magnifying glass. They fee~ on
organic matter and organisms in the water and groW rapIdly.
Before developing into pupae, they molt four times.
Practically all species remain just below the water surf~
and get air through a breathing tube which penetrates the wa ~
surface. Anopheles larvae usually move rapidly and appear
4
be gliding on top of the water. Mosquitoes of this genus have
rudimentary breathing tubes. Most species of mosquitoes, other
than those belonging to the Anopheles genus, hang head down­ward
from the water surface at an angle and appear to be
suspended by their breathing tubes. When disturbed, they
usually dive with wiggling action.
Larvae and pupae of Mansonia perturbans remain below the
water surface at all times and obtain oxygen from vegetation
into which they thrust their breathing tubes.
The duration of the larval stage is usually only a few days
but sometimes lasts several months, the duration being deter­mined
by many factors.
ANOPHELINEs CUllCINES
ANOPHELES AEDES CULEX
~ #'t, ~ ~t<> ~ ~
lOGS
0
WITH fLOATS L.AIO SIMOLY NO'LOATS LAID I'JlfGt.Y fIIO 'LOATS LAID IN RAn,
OH WATER ON DillY SUIll'AO[ ON _TO'
LAIIVAE
REST'S PARALLEL ,"0
WATER SU"".C[
~ ROTATED 1"'­WHEN
FEEDING
PUIlU
Aquatic Stages of Mosquitoes
The Pupae
While in the pupal stage, mosquitoes are encased in a shell
and cannot eat but retain their motility. They appear to be
almost all head with a small tail attached. They become very
active when disturbed, darting around or making fast dives,
returning with equal rapidity, or slowly floating to the surface.
s
-
This stage seldom lasts over a few days and then the adult
mosquito emerges from the pupal case.
The developmental cycle of the mosquito from egg to
adult seldom takes less than seven days and usually requires
ten days; although, under unfavorable conditions resulting from
low temperatures or shortage of food several months may be
required.
The Adult Mosquito
This is the only stage in the life of mosquitoes that is not
spent in water.
After emerging from the pupal cases, adult mosquitoes rest
for several minutes in order that their soft, damp bodies may
become dry and firm. The males hover around the breeding
place and usually mate with the females soon after they emerge.
With some species this takes place before the female takes
flight. Other species, including the Anopheles quadrimaculatus,
our malaria mosquito, never mate except when flying. One
mating makes theJemale fertile for life.
The male mosquito does not bite. In fact, it has no mouth
parts capable of piercing the skin. The male mosquito obtains
its food from sap of trees nectar from flowers and fruit juices.
As the male mosquito's' food can usually b~ found near its
breeding place, it seldom flies great distances.
The female pest mosquito must have a blood meal before
her eggs will hatch. For this reason the distance she flies is to
a large extent influenced by the availability of humans or animals
upon which she can feed. Flight distances are also determined
by the species of mosquito, weather conditions, and other factors.
. There are many species of non-biting midges that look
lIke adult mosquitoes and are frequently mistaken for them.
Thes~ midges, like male mosquitoes, have antennae that are
heavIly plumed on each side of the mouth and do not have
biting mouth parts.
In nature it is estimated that adult mosquitoes seldom yve
?ver 30 days. Under favorable conditions that can be maintam~d
In the laboratory, they can be kept alive several months. It IS
~lso true that females of some species live through the winter
In the adult stage. Other species spend the winter as eggs or
larvae.
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When feeding or resting, mosquitoes of the Anopheles
genus usually hold their bodies on an angle of 45 degrees or
greater with the surface. Other species rest in a humped up
position almost parallel to the surface.
IMPORTANT SPECIES OF MOSQUITOES
IN NORTH CAROLINA
As there are over 50 known species of mosquitoes in North
Carolina and about 1500 in the world, it is not possible in a
writing of this kind to discuss each species nor is it practical
to present detailed information regarding any of them. It is
suggested that those who desire more complete knowledge
consult a textbook on Medical Entomology or one of the bulletins
prepared by the U. S. Government. "Mosquitoes of the South­eastern
States," Agriculture Handbook No. 173, (a good bulletin
on the subject) can be obtained from the Superintendent of
Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
D. C., for 75 cents.
Condensed information regarding some species that are
important in North Carolina is given below.
Anopheles quadrimaculatus, the mosquito that transmits
malaria in North Carolina, is rather dark in color and has four
dark spots on each wing. It breeds principally in permanent
bodies of fresh water that contain aquatic vegetation and
floating trash. Ponds, stagnant ditches, and swamps in which
the acidity of the water is not high are ideal breeding places.
They seldom lay their eggs in artificial containers. The flight
range of this mosquito is usually not over one mile. As these
mosquitoes seldom fly except at night and spend the daylight
hours resting in hollow trees, stables, homes, or other protected
places, there is no danger of becoming infected with malaria by
visiting places where they occur in large numbers during the
daytime.
Aedes aegypti, the mosquito that transmits yellow fever
and dengue, is small and almost black in color with a light design
in the shape of a lyre on its back. It breeds in small water
containers, such as discarded automobile tires, tin cans, bottles,
flower vases, roof gutters, and flush tanks in empty houses.
Clean water is preferred but they will breed in water that is
highly polluted.
These mosquitoes rarely fly more than a few hundred
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yards from their breeding place. They seldom bite, except
during the daytime, and are most active early in the morning
or late afternoon. These are very annoying pest mosquitoes
that usually bite around the ankles or wrists.
Mosquitoes of this species are scarce in North Carolina.
Fortunately, they must bite a person with yellow fever before
they can transmit the disease.
Culex pipiens quinquefaciatus, an average size mosquito, is
grayish brown in color, with white bands around the abdomen.
Like the Aedes aegypti, it usually breeds and remains in the
vicinity of human dwellings. In most urban areas, it is one
of the most abundant night-biting mosquitoes and is extreme­ly
annoying. This species breeds in rain barrels, catch basins,
the effluent from sewage treatment plants, polluted ground
pools and ditches, street gutters, garbage dumps, and other
places.
This mosquito transmits filariasis, St. Louis encephalitis
and dog heart worm.
Aedes sollicitans, our most troublesome species of salt marsh
mosquito, is fairly large in size and golden brown in color with
white rings around its legs. Due to abundance, long flight range,
and fierce biting habits, these mosquitoes often make life miser­able
for residents and summer visitors in our coastal areas.
They will fly as much as 40 miles and occasionally greater
distances from their breeding places, attack with readiness
day or night, and are so plentiful at times that it is hard to
keep them brushed off the face and other parts of the body.
These mosquitoes breed in brackish water. The eggs are
usually laid on the mud in pot holes and other depressions in
salt marshes that are not flooded by daily tides. These eggs can
withstand periods of drying and still retain their viability.
Following rains, water collects in these places and causes the
eggs to hatch. Within a short time, usually less than a week,
the mosquitoes are grown. By this process large numbers of
e~gs that have collected over long periods of time hatch almost
sImultaneously and within a few days an enormous brood of
mosquitoes emerges.
During the daytime mosquitoes of this species usually
r~s~ in the grass and low bushes. When disturbed, they attack
VICIOusly. Just before dark they fly off in large swarms looking
for blood meals.
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I
Aedes taeniorhynchus, another annoying salt marsh mosqui­to
that occurs on the North Carolina coast is medium in size,
nearly black, with white bands around its abdomen and legs. It
is less inclined to bite during the daylight than the Aedes sollici­tans.
Unlike the Aedes sollicitans, these mosquitoes will breed
in water varying in salt content from sea water to that which
is completely fresh. Mosquitoes of this species will fly several
miles.
MOSQUITO CONTROL
From the foregoing it will be seen that it is necessary to give
consideration to the breeding, flying, and feeding habits of the
mosquito species involved before planning an effective and
efficient control program. As three of the four stages in the life
of a mosquito are spent entirely in water, it is in general advis­able
to apply control operations to the breeding places. To be
completely successful, it is often necessary to employ measures
directed at them in all stages from egg to adult.
Responsibility for the control of mosquitoes is shared by
both individuals and public officials. The property owner can
help prevent mosquito breeding in the immediate vicinity by
applying simple control measures but there is very little that
he can do toward the control of many far-flying, fierce-biting
mosquitoes. These are problems for the community as a whole.
What The Home Owner Can Do
Shown below are some of the things you can do on your
own premise to prevent the breeding of mosquitoes and to
protect yourself against those that fly in from the outside.
1. Drain all standing water, if it is possible to do so.
2. Fill depressions in the ground that hold water.
3. Apply kerosene or No.2 fuel oil to collections of ground
water that cannot be eliminated by drainage,. such. as
stagnant ditches, clay pits, ponded areas, pnvy PIts,
and hog wallows.
4. Eliminate unnecessary receptacles that hold rain water,
such as tin cans, old rubber tires, discarded water
buckets, fruit jars and bottles.
5. Keep roof gutters free of trash, such as tree leaves,
and maintain them is such a manner that they do not
sag and hold water.
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6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Drain watering troughs, bird baths, flower vases, and
other unprotected water containers once a week. Allow
them to dry thoroughly before refilling.
Keep 16-mesh wire screens over barrels and other
containers used to save rain water.
Mosquito proof the home by putting snug fitting
screens of 16-mesh wire over the outer openings of all
doors, windows, and exhaust fans. Sub-standard home
with holes in the floor, roof, or outside walls require
additional mosquito proofing by patching over such
places. Porches and chimneys with open fire places
should also be screened in areas where mosquitoes are
abundant.
Use space sprays both inside and outside the home
where other measures are not effective.
Material used for both residual spraying and space
spraying should be purchased from a reliable source.
It is important to read the label carefully and follow the
directions exactly. Do not use the material for any
purpose other than those recommended and be sure
to heed all safety precautions given. Insecticides are
poison. Keep them stored in places where they cannot
be reached by children or irresponsible persons.
Repellents such as commercial preparations that con­tain
oil ol citronella, dimethyl phthalate, indalone, or
Rutgers 612 are effective for several ho~rs as protec•
tion against mosquitoes and some oth~r lJ~sects. T ~y
should be applied according to the dIrectlO~s O\t :
label. Care should be taken to avoid gettmg t e
materials in the eyes.
Make periodic inspections of the pre~ise to ascel:~n
that the screens are in good repaIr and no P
exist that breed mosquitoes.
What Communities Should Do
. . community
The control of most species of mosqUItoes IS a 'd the
problem, as it is not practical for individuals to p·rtov1speec1.
necessary personnel and equipment. Many.mosqUl .0 ible
have such long flight ranges that it would be vIrtually lJ~pos rder
for the individual to determine when to apply control In f:cW.
to obtain relief from them, even if he had the necessa~ Id be
ties. Listed below are some of the measures that s ou mun­applied
by the town, sanitary district, county or other com
ity organizations.
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1. Water management. Eliminate mosquito breeding areas
by :w~ter manipulation. This may be accomplished by
drammg water from mosquito breeding pools or by
filling them; by cleaning the margins of the lakes.
ponds and streams so that the predatory fish and
insects can eat the mosquito larvae; by impounding
salt marshes to make the area unattractive as an
ovaposition site for the female salt marsh mosquitoes.
Cut canals and streams so that the alignment follows
the lowest area or follows the original stream bed. Cut
ditches to true even grades with the bottoms
narrow enough to be covered with water during per­iods
of normal flow or as in the ditches in the salt
marshes so that a foot of water remains in them at all
times. Slope the sides of ditches, streams and canals,
enough to prevent caving. Have ditch alignment
straight when it is possible to do so and when changes
in direction are necessary, avoid sharp angles by put­ting
in curves as flat as the ground and other topo­graphical
features will permit. Install drainage struc­tures
under roads and streets on grades that conform
with those in the ditches. Install sewer pipes, water
mains, or other potential obstructions that cross the
channels at elevations that will not interfere with
the water flow. Keep ditches and streams as free as
possible of drift, floatage, and other debris. Cut vege­tation
that interferes with larvicidal operations or
obstructs the flow as often as the rate of growth
requires. Other vegetation should be permitted to
remain, as the shade provided inhibits the growth
of weeds and grass.
Planning and construction of the drainage system
should be performed under the supervision of an
engineer.
2. Larviciding. The term mosquito larvicide is used to
designate a chemical that is applied to a body of wate.r
to kill mosquito larvae. There are a number of chemI­cals
(Abate fenthion Dursban, malathion and fuel
oil) that ha've been approved as larvici~es; however,
these chemicals other than the fuel oIl, should be
applied by train~d and adequately supervised personnel.
No.2 fuel oil is an effective larvicide that may be ';lsed
by the individual when treating puddles. or fIxed
water containers on his own property..It IS also. the
larvicide of choice in many towns and CIty operatlOn~.
The horne owner can put a few drops of No. ~ fuel 011
on a small puddle and expect to kill all mosq!'uto eggs,
larvae and pupae in the puddle. When a~phed by a:n
organized mosquito control unit, a spreadmg agent IS
added to the oil at the rate of 0.5 percent by volume
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?f the larvi~ide oil. The oil-spreading agent mixture
IS then applIed to the mosquito breeding areas at the
rate of from 2 to 5 gallons per acre.
3. Outdoor Space Spraying. Properly timed and applied,
temporary relief from mosquitoes can be obtained by
the application of pesticides as space treatments in the
form of fogs or mists. This method of mosquito con­~
ro~ kills ?r drives off the insects present at the time
It IS applIed but gives no significant lasting effect.
YVith .tl;te best space spray machines, using effec~ve
InsectIcIdes, and operated in the correct manner, kills
are seldom obtained at distances greater than 200 feet.
The fog which travels beyond the 200 foot distance
will usually not kill mosquitoes but may in some
instances, drive them from the area. Several machines
designed for the dispersal of insecticides as mi
or fogs are commercially available.
The organophosphorous compounds, malathion and
naled, are the principal insecticides used in orth
Carolina for space treatment although other insecti­cides
are approved for that purpose and will be used
should the need arise.
Safe Use of Pesticides in Vector Control
All insecticides are poisonous and should be so regarded at
all times. The State law requires that all pesticides sold comm.er­cially
in North Carolina be registered with the orth Carobn
Department of Agriculture. No pesticides should be used other
than those that are properly registered and labeled with d·
quate directions concerning their use and precaution for afety.
Following is a list of safety rules developed by the American
Public Health Association, Inc., which apply to all pe ticide u
especially organized vector control units:
1. Only well-trained, responsible adult hould be in
charge of hazardous chemicals.
"d on 2. Workmen should read the label on the pe tJ~1 ed· =
tainer each time before using it and follow iU 1C
tions and precautions.
3. There should be adequate supervision and in truc~O:
of all employees concerning pesticide hazard . On- and
job supervision must be provided. . ew. emploB and
changes in operations require speCIal ill ~Ct:: 'tb
supervision, for they are more often as. oclach mi
accidents. No one should work alone WIth e
that can poison him.
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4. Pesticide containers should be properly labeled and
stored under lock and key. No pesticide chemicals or
their containers, empty or otherwise, should be left in
areas to which children or pets have access. Beverage
bottles or food containers should never be used for
mixing pesticides. Emptied containers should be burn­ed,
buried in authorized areas, or decontaminated
immediately.
5. There should be advance planning for proper handling
of accidents and emergencies. Medical supervision
should be provided wherever a poisoning hazard exists.
Before each spraying season the physicians in the area
should be notified of the pesticides that will be used
and where they can get toxicological data about them.
6. Pest control equipment should be of proper design,
well maintained, and cleaned after each use to mini­mize
spills or other pesticide exposure to operators
or maintenance personnel. Protective equipment should
always be used when spray equipment is being cleaned.
7. Whenever there is a choice, the less hazardous and
less persistent chemical should be used and no more of
it than is necessary.
8. Washing facilities should be readily available and any
spills or splashes of chemical should be immediately
washed from the skin and the clothing changed. Hands
should be washed before smoking or eating. Lunches
and tobacco should be kept away from the chemicals.
A shower followed by a change of clothing after each
day's work is mandatory. Work clothes should be
cleaned separately-they should not be taken home
for laundering.
9. The employer should provide, maintain and clean
whatever protective clothing or equipment is needed
for safe work with chemicals. Different pesticides
may require different kinds of protective equipment.
Eye protection is too frequently overlooked. The U. S.
Department of Agriculture tests and lists respiratory
equipment suitable for pesticide applicators.
10. ~I?ecial care is necessary in handling concentrated pest­ICIdes.
It is at this point that the greatest hazards ~ay
be e~pected, particularly in the case of those chemIcals
readIly absorbed through the skin. For the transfer
of concentrates from drums either threaded taps or
drum pumps should be used. Measuring or pouring
from jars or cans can be especially hazardous. Closed
systems for mixing pesticides should be used wherever
13
r
possible. The handling of concentrates should be the
responsibility of a limited number of specially trained
personnel.
11. Avoid applications on food and food crops, on live­stock
and their forage, on the drinking water supplies
of man and animals, and on personal items such as
clothes on the clothesline, toys, homes, and automobiles.
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Genera and Species of Mosquitoes Found in North Carolina
Prevalence
&
Genus and Species Importance· Breeding Habits
Aedes:
aegypti 1&4 Artificial containers
atlanticus 2 Temporary woodland pools
atropalpus 4 Rock holes
canadensis 3 Temporary woodland pools
cinereus 4 Temporary woodland pools
dupreei 4 Temporary pools
fulvus pallens 4 Temporary woodland pools
infirmatus 2 Temporary pools
mitchellae 4 Temporary woodland pools
sollicitans 1 Salt marshes
sticticus 2 River bottom flooded pools
taeniorhynchus 1 Salt marshes
thibaulti 4 Gum tree rot holes
t01"1nentor 4 Temporary woodland pools
triseriatus 2 Tree holes-artificial
containers
trivittatus 4 Flood-water pools along
rivers
vexans 2 Flood plain and rainfilled
pools
Anopheles:
atropos 4 Salt marshes
barberi 4 Tree holes
crucians bradleyi 3&4 Salt marshes
crucians crucians 3 Acid swamp water
crucians georgianus 4 Acid water in open swamps
pe1'plexens
4 Reported from limestone
springs: Swannanoa, N. C.
punctipennis 2 Cool weather breeder
(spring and fall)
QUadrimaculatus 1 Summer species (April-
Sept.) Fresh water pools &
margins of lakes
1ualkeri
4 Fresh water marshes
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· -
Prevalenee
&
Genus and Species Importanee· Breeding Habits
Culex:
erraticus 3 Grassy permanent pools
nigripalpus 4 Grassy permanent pools
peccator 4 Pools in swampy areas
pilosus 4 Pools in swampy areas
pipiens pipiens 4 Polluted water
pipiens quinquefasci- 1&2 Polluted water
atus
restuans 2 Polluted ditches & puddles
salinarius 2 Grassy pools: fresh or
brackish
territans 4 Fresh water pools
Culiseta:
inornata 4 Winter breeder: permanent
pools
melanura 1&3 Acid swamp water
Mansonia:
perturbans 2&4 Fresh water with abundant
aquatic vegetation
Orthopodomyia:
alba 4 Artificial containers
Tree holes
signifera 4 Artificial containers
Tree holes
PSOTophcrra:
ciliata 2&4 Semi-permanent pools
con/innis
(Predacious)
1 Temporary pools in fields
cyanescens 4 Temporary pools ill wood-lands
discolor 4 Woodland pools
ferox 2 Woodland pools
horrida 4 Woodland pools
howardii 4 Semi-permanent pools
varipes
(Predacious)
4 Woodland pools
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Genus and Species
Toxorhynchites:
rutilus septentrionalis
Uranotaenia:
lowii
sapphirina
Prevalence
&
Importance- Breeding Habits
4 Treehole breeder
Predacious (non-biting)
4 Grassy pond margins
(adults feed on amphib­ians)
4 Grassy pond margins
(adults feed on amphib­ians)
Wyeomyia:
haynei (smithii) 4 Water in leaf of pitcher
plant
* I-important economic species; 2-locally abundant and annoying, princi­pally
out of doors; 3-common species, not very troublesome; 4--usually
rare or of very restricted distribution.
17
BULLETIN NO. 486
(Rmaecll1I72)