Guide to fall prevention in industry.

              A Guide to
Fall Prevention
in Industry
N. C. Department of Labor
Division of Occupational Safety and Health
1101 Mail Service Center
Raleigh, NC 27699- 1101
Cherie Berry
Commissioner of Labor
N. C. Department of Labor
Occupational Safety and Health Program
Cherie Berry
Commissioner of Labor
OSHA State Plan Designee
Allen McNeely
Deputy Commissioner for Safety and Health
Kevin Beauregard
Assistant Deputy Commissioner for Safety and Health
Bobby R. Davis
OSH Publications Manager
Tom Savage
Reviewer
Acknowledgments
This edition of A Guide to Fall Prevention in Industry includes material prepared by the Oregon Occupational
Safety and Health Division; the U. S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration; and the
L. A. Weaver Company of Raleigh, N. C. Safety standards officer Tom Savage conducted a comprehensive review of
this guide. Some changes have been made to reflect the most current North Carolina experience. Many thanks to Tom
Savage for reviewing and updating this guide.
This guide is intended to be consistent with all existing OSHA standards; therefore, if an area is considered
by the reader to be inconsistent with a standard, then the adopted standard should be followed.
To obtain additional copies of this book, or if you have questions about N. C. occupational safety and health standards or
rules, please contact:
N. C. Department of Labor
Bureau of Education, Training and Technical Assistance
1101 Mail Service Center
Raleigh, NC 27699- 1101
Phone: ( 919) 807- 2875 or 1- 800- NC- LABOR
____________________
Additional sources of information are listed on the inside back cover of this book.
____________________
The projected cost of the NCDOL OSH program for federal fiscal year 2007– 2008 is $ 16,143,161. Federal funding provides approximately 32 percent ($ 5,180,570) of
Printed 2/ 08
Contents
Part Page
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1iiv
1 Trips, Slips and Falls— An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ivi1
2 Falls From the Same Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii14
3 Stairways and Ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii17
4 Construction Industry Fall- Protection Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii14
5 Digest of General Industry OSHA Standards Regarding
Fall Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii34
6 Digest of Construction Industry OSHA Standards Regarding
Fall Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii37
7 OSHA Requirements for Guardrails, Safety Harnesses, Safety Nets
and Other Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii42
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii44
iii
Foreword
The total dollar cost to victims and families affected by work- related deaths and injuries, to employers, and to the
nation as a whole is much greater than the cost of workers’ compensation insurance alone. The National Safety Council
estimates that the total cost of occupational deaths and injuries in 2005 was $ 625.5 billion. That figure includes wage and
productivity losses, medical costs, administrative expenses, cost estimates for workers to make up lost work time due to
another worker’s injury, and the time to investigate and report injuries.
Safety and health in the workplace is everyone’s responsibility. Employers must be aware of workplace hazards facing
their workers, and they must take appropriate action to minimize or eliminate exposure to these hazards. Workers are
responsible for following the policies, procedures and training requirements established by their employers. A Guide to
Fall Prevention in Industry discusses precautions that can prevent and protect workers against fall injuries and fatalities.
There is also a convenient digest listing many fall protection standards in OSHA General Industry and Construction
Industry regulations.
In North Carolina, DOL inspectors enforce the federal Occupational Safety and Health Act through a state plan
approved by the U. S. Department of Labor. The Division of Occupational Safety and Health of the N. C. Department of
Labor offers many educational programs to the public and produces publications, including this guide, to help inform
people about their rights and responsibilities regarding occupational safety and health.
When looking through this guide, please remember the DOL mission is greater than just enforcement of regulations.
An equally important goal is to help people find ways to create safe workplaces. This booklet, like the other educational
materials produced by the N. C. Department of Labor, can help.
Cherie Berry
Commissioner of Labor
v
Tripping and Stumbling Hazards
Objects out of place
Objects or materials in walkways
Tools on the floor
Projecting parts of machines or equipment
Equipment or material on stairs
Scrap or waste materials
Pipe or conduit set near floor level
Extension cords, power cables, air hoses, welding cables,
fuel, gas and oxygen hoses
Uneven floor surface:
Holes and depressions in floor or other walkway
Projections�� warped or loose boards or blocks
Broken floor surface
Uneven patches
Uncovered drains, pits
Bent floor boards or plates
Loose or poorly fitted grating
Sudden changes in pitch or elevation
Sagging or expanded floor supports
1
Trips, Slips and Falls— An Overview
In 2005, the Bureau of Labor Statistics ( BLS) reported that 767 workers died in fatal falls, a 7 percent decline from the
series high recorded in 2004. Fatal work injuries involving falls increased 5 percent in 2006 after a sharp decrease in
2005. The total of 809 fatal falls in 2006 was the third highest total since 1992, when the fatality census began. Fatal falls
from roofs increased from 160 fatalities in 2005 to 184 in 2006, a rise of 15 percent. Included in the total were falls from
ladders, roofs, scaffolds and falls on the same level. Falls from ladders and roofs still account for the majority of falls.
Identifying fall hazards and deciding how best to protect workers is the first step in reducing or eliminating fall hazards.
People have fallen from considerable heights and received only a few broken bones, while others fall to the floor from
a standing or sitting position and die from their injuries. Nearly all falls result from conditions or practices that seem obvi-ous;
however, preventing such accidents requires maintaining safe conditions in the workplace and training to ensure safe
actions by employees.
Listed below are some common problem and solution areas to consider concerning your workplace.
Problem: People fall by tripping over some object
such as a tool on the floor, stairs or walkways.
Solution: To remedy this situation it is necessary that
all places where people walk be kept clear of such trip-ping
hazards. Employees must not leave tools or mate-rials
in places where they or others can trip over them.
Work areas should be designed and arranged to elimi-nate
pipe, conduit, supports, etc., at the floor level.
Tools and other equipment should be placed in their
proper storage areas when not being used.
Problem: People fall by stumbling into holes in the
floor or over uneven floors caused by loose boards,
cracked concrete, etc.
Solution: The obvious remedy for this situation is to
keep floors in good condition and to repair defects as
they occur. The actual prevention job may require the
elimination of the causes of worn floors, such as steel-wheeled
carts and handtrucks, excessive vibration of
machines, or too heavy loading of the floor for the type
of construction.
Problem: People fall by slipping on floors, stairs, etc.,
which are wet from water, oil or chemicals.
Solution: If it is unavoidable for the floor to be wet,
the flooring should be of nonslip type, or the employ-ees
should wear shoes with nonskid soles, or both. If
the floors are normally dry, water spillage should be
cleaned up immediately. Spilled oil, grease or chemi-cals
should be removed at once and the source of the
spill checked and corrected.
Slipping
Tripping Stumbling
1
Slipping Hazards
Wet floors, stairs, walkways:
Water
Oil or grease
Chemicals
Smooth floors, stairs, walkways:
Waxed, polished surface
Metal plate or cover
Tile, terrazzo, marble
Table D- 1
[ Table D- 1 is taken
from the North Carolina
Occupational Safety
and Health Standards
for General Industry:
Standard 1910.24( e).]
Angle to horizontal Rise Tread run
( in inches) ( in inches)
30° 35' ................................ 6 1/ 2 11
32° 08' ................................ 6 3/ 4 10 3/ 4
33° 41' ................................ 7 10 1/ 2
35° 16' ................................ 7 1/ 4 10 1/ 4
36° 52' ................................ 7 1/ 2 10
38° 29' ................................ 7 3/ 4 19 3/ 4
40° 08' ................................ 8 19 1/ 2
41° 44' ................................ 8 1/ 4 19 1/ 4
43° 22' ................................ 8 1/ 2 19
45° 00' ................................ 8 3/ 4 18 3/ 4
46° 38' ................................ 9 18 1/ 2
48° 16' ................................ 9 1/ 4 18 1/ 4
49° 54' ................................ 9 1/ 2 18
Problem: People not seeing where they are stepping. This may be caused by poorly
lighted areas; by carrying or pushing loads that are so large as to obstruct the view;
or by being distracted and not paying attention to where they are going.
Solution: Observation and recognition of these hazards by supervisors or other
workers should be reported to the proper authority immediately. Supervisors have the
additional special responsibilities with regard to safety in the workplace of encouraging safe
work habits and correcting unsafe ones, explaining to the workers all the potential hazards
associated with their work areas and being responsive to employee requests for action or infor-mation
regarding possible hazards in the workplace.
Problem: People fall because of faulty stairs or handrails. Narrow, unevenly spaced,
broken treads or stairs that are too steep present conditions that are unnatural. Broken,
improperly set or lack of handrails can result in falls that could have been prevented.
Solution: People learn to walk on standard stairs and get into the habit of stepping a
certain distance. Any variation of the stair is liable to cause a misstep. Be sure that
fixed industrial stairs are installed: with a minimum width of 22 inches; with angles
to the horizontal of between 30 and 50 degrees ( See Table D- 1); with treads that are
reasonably slip resistant; with rise height and tread width that is uniform throughout
the flight of stairs; designed and constructed to carry a load at least five times the
anticipated weight; with a minimum vertical clearance of seven feet; and with standard railings provided and installed in
accordance with § 1910.23 and 1910.24.
Problem: People fall from high places.
Solution: Walkways, tramways, scaffolds and piles are
hazardous unless proper safeguards and safe work
methods are used. Use the proper personal protective
equipment for the situation. Be sure to check over all
equipment before use to ensure it is in good condition.
Keep all areas clean: no scrap, loose tools or tangled
lines. Follow manufacturer’s instructions to the letter
on all equipment. ( For further information concerning
falls from elevations, please refer to Part 4.)
Problem: People fall because of unsafe ladders. Ladders may be unsafe because of their con-struction,
condition or use.
Solution: It is necessary that ladders be inspected carefully at regular periods to detect and cor-rect
any structural defects or unsafe conditions, such as sharp edges, splinters or burrs.
Training should be provided concerning safety- related work practices relating to ladders, and
employees should be required to use the safe practices.
2
Safety Check List
 11. Are floors, stairs and walkways clear and free from tools, materials, oil, grease, water or chemicals?
 12. Are the floors and walkways smooth and free from holes, cracks and loose boards?
 13. Where the operation requires the floor to be wet frequently, is the floor surface rough- finished concrete or some
other nonslip type?
 14. Are the employees encouraged to wear shoes with nonskid soles in potentially wet or slippery areas?
 15. Are the walkways and work areas arranged so as to avoid tripping hazards at floor level?
 16. Are barricades and warning signs used where unavoidable tripping hazards are present?
 17. Have the workers been trained to replace items, such as tools, immediately after use?
 18. Are walkways, stairs, ramps and work areas adequately lighted?
 19. Are the stairs in good condition and provided with handrails?
 10. Are the risers on stairs of equal height?
 11. Are the treads of stairs smooth and free from holes, cracks and excess wear?
 12. Are ladders in good condition, free from cracks, burrs and splinters?
 13. Are all ladders inspected regularly by a competent person?
 14. Are all elevated walkways, tramways, catwalks and scaffolds provided with toeboards, handrails, and intermedi-ate
railings?
3
2
Falls From the Same Level
Worker/ Floor Surface Coupling
The concept of worker/ floor surface coupling relates to the friction between a worker’s shoe sole and the working sur-face.
This consideration figures prominently in work- surface related accidents, such as:
  Slips ( loss of traction on work surfaces)
  Trips ( movement of lower body is arrested)
  Missteps ( putting the foot down where there is no support)
These accident patterns account for almost three- quarters of work- surface- related accidents. A prime variable in such
accidents is the friction between the working surface and the shoe sole.
General Observations About Friction
There are laws of friction that, generally stated, inform us that on dry surfaces:
  Friction is independent of normal pressure ( a big object and a small object will slide with equal ease down the same
way).
  Friction is independent of the area of contact ( a brick will require the same force to be pushed across the floor whether
it is flat, on edge or on end).
  The relationship between static and kinetic friction is such that it is harder to get something started from rest than to
keep it sliding.
  Friction is only slightly affected by ordinary temperature changes. ( Car brakes work equally well in summer or in
winter, but if temperatures get too high, brakes can burn out.)
The laws of friction can be used to structure our environment to reduce particular types of falls.
Shoe Sole
Safety shoes with cord or rubber soles are more desirable than leather when working on wet surfaces because of the
greater friction between them and the walking surface. Friction between the shoe sole and the working surface is depen-dent
upon:
  Work surface material ( wood, concrete, steel, tile and other substances)
  Surface coating ( for example, waxes can both increase and decrease friction)
  Floor condition ( clean or dirty; wet, dry or greasy)
  Floor angle ( greater friction is required for steeper slopes)
  Shoe sole/ heel composition and contact area ( rubber soles and certain synthetic soles are better than leather under
dry conditions, but differences reduce or even reverse under wet conditions)
  Style of shoe ( shoes with high or narrow heels are the most hazardous)
There is an optimum relationship regarding friction between the worker’s shoes and the working surface. 1
4
____________________
1The general recommendation is to adjust shoes and working surfaces to give a coefficient of static friction of 0.5. The coefficient of friction for surfaces ( floors)
can be calculated by using a pull- gauge and the formula F = f/ n, where F = coefficient of friction, f = force required to pull the object, and n = normal force between
surfaces ( for horizontal surface, n = weight of object).
Working Surface
Table 1 lists common materials and the coefficient of friction for each.
Table 1
Materials and Coefficient of Friction
Oak on oak 0.25
Rubber on concrete 0.70
Metal on oak 0.55
Metal on elm 0.20
Hemp on oak 0.53
Steel on steel 0.18
Greased surfaces 0.05
Iron on concrete 0.30
Leather on metal 0.56
Steel on babbitt 0.14
Unnoticed changes in surface friction are implicated in many accidents. Going from a less slippery floor to a more slip-pery
one produces slips; the opposite change produces trips and missteps. These unnoticed changes can be reduced by:
  Ensuring that different surface materials or coatings have transition zones between them.
  Clearly marking any surface where friction changes.
  Using good housekeeping procedures to reduce changes in surface friction caused by spills, worn spots, and loose or
irregular floors.
The above recommendations are of particular importance in manual materials handling where any handling other than
direct lifting involves horizontal inertial forces transmitted from the container to the body. Such forces require increased
frictional forces to prevent foot slippage. Carrying weights also affects the body’s learned reflexes for recovering from a
slip or trip. In such situations, the body’s normal weight distribution is altered and the arms are prevented from being used
to regain balance or recover from another moving mass in close proximity to the falling operator. There is the potential
for both crushing and puncturing the body.
Tables 2 and 3 below were taken from the Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial Operations: Administration and
Programs ( and are reprinted with the permission of the National Safety Council). Table 2 reports on characteristics of
materials that can be used for working surfaces ( floors).
Table 2
Physical Properties of Floor Finishes
The second, third and fourth columns report resistance to Abrasion [ A], Impact [ Imp] and Indentation [ Ind]. The last four columns
report on Slipperiness [ S], Warmth [ W], Quietness [ Q] and Ease of Cleaning [ EC].
Types of Finish A Imp Ind S W Q EC
Portland cement concrete in situ VG– P* G– P VG G– F P P F
Portland cement concrete precast VG– G G– F VG G– F P P F
High- alumina cement concrete in situ VG– P G– P VG G– F P P F
Magnesite G– F G– F G F F F G
Latex- cement G– F G– F F G F F G– F
Resin emulsion cement G– F G– F F G F F G– F
Bitumen emulsion cement G– F G– F F– P G F F F
Pitch mastic G– F G– F F– P G– F F F G
Wood block ( hardwood) VG– F VG– F F– P G– F F F G
Mastic asphalt VG– F VG– F VG– F VG G G G– F
Wood block ( softwood) F– P F– P F VG G G G– P
Metal tiles VG VG VG F P P G– F
Clay tiles and bricks VG– G VG– F VG G– F P P VG
Epoxy resin compositions VG VG VG VG F F VG
* VG ( very good), G ( good), F ( fair), P ( poor)
5
Table 3 is a guide to the selection of floor materials.
Table 3
Guide to Floor Materials and Surfaces
6
Types*
Asphalt tile
Linoleum
Rubber
Vinyls
Terrazzo
Concrete
Plastic
Wood
Cork tile
Steel
Clay and
quarry tile
Characteristics
Blended asphaltic and/ or resinous thermo-plastic
binders and/ or other inert filler mate-rials
and pigments.
Cork dust, wood floor, or both, held togeth-er
by binders of linseed oil or resins and
gum. Pigments are added for color.
Vulcanized, natural, synthetic, or combina-tion
rubber compound cured to a sufficient
density to prevent creeping under heavy
foot traffic.
Inert, nonflammable, nontoxic resins com-pounded
with other filler and stabilizing
ingredients.
Marble or granite chips mixed with a
cement matrix.
Portland cement mixed with sand, gravel,
and water, then poured.
Like asphalt tile in composition but is heat-ed
on the job and troweled onto floor to
form a seamless flooring. Often used over
concrete for durable, resilient surface.
Either soft or hard, in variety of thicknesses
and designs.
Molded and compressed ground cork bark
with natural resins of the cork to bind the
mass together when heat cured under pres-sure.
Iron containing carbon in any amount up to
about 1.7 percent as an alloying constituent,
and malleable when used under suitable
conditions.
Kiln- dried clay products are similar to
bricks and are used in areas requiring wet
cleaning.
Use of Abrasives
May be used to reduce slipperiness of
floors. Colloidal silica** can be incorporat-ed
in wax and synthetic resin floor coatings.
Slip- resistant except when wet.
Adhesive fabric with ingrained abrasives
can be used. Patterned in strips, tiles, and
cleats.
Silicon carbide or aluminum oxide can be
included in mix when floor is laid. Also an
abrasive- reinforced plastic coating can be
painted on.
( Same as asphalt tile.)
Metallic particles and artificial abrasives in
varnish or paint give good nonslip qualities.
( Same as asphalt tile.)
Surface can be touched up with an arc
welding electrode so that raised places on
surface resemble angle worms. An abrasive
reinforced plastic coating can be painted on
( dries hard as cement and has a sandpaper-like
finish). A temporary nonskid surface
can be yielded by: ( 1) flexible rubber mats
made of automobile tires; ( 2) rubber or
vinyl runners.
Typically resistant to abrasives.
Dressing Materials
Wax/ wax products: Carnauba wax dries in
place with very hard/ glossy finish but with a
slippery surface. It is widely used as a base for
floor surface preparations.
Bees and petroleum waxes are softer and less
slippery, depending on the formulation.
Slip- resistant sealant will improve slip- resistant
quality if renewed periodically.
Synthetic resins: These “ synthetics,” “ resins,”
or “ polishes” intend to offer advantages of wax
without the slipperiness.
Other materials. Paint, enamel, shel
lac, varnish, plastic, are semi- permanent finish-es
used on wood and concrete floors. Do not
materially increase slipperiness of the base.
May be treated by etching. May be formulated
as nonslip by adding carborundum or aluminum
oxide when mixing the clay before kilning.
** Floors and stairways should be designed to have slip- resistant surfaces insofar as possible; adhesive carborundum strips may be used on stair treads or ramps and
critical concrete areas. Etching with mild hydrochloric ( muriatic) acid solution will lessen slip problems.
** Colloidal silica is an opalescent, aqueous solution containing 30 percent amorphous silicon dioxide and a small amount of alkali as a stabilizer.
3
Stairways and Ladders
Stairways and ladders are a major source of injuries and fatalities among workers. OSHA estimates that there are
24,882 injuries and as many as 36 fatalities per year due to falls from stairways and ladders used in construction. Nearly
half of these injuries are serious enough to require time off the job— 11,570 lost workday injuries and 13,312 non- lost
workday injuries occur annually due to falls from stairways and ladders used in construction. These data demonstrate that
work on and around ladders and stairways is hazardous. More importantly, they show that compliance with OSHA
requirements for the safe use of ladders and stairways could have prevented many of these injuries.
The OSHA rules apply to all stairways and ladders used in industry, alteration, repair ( including painting and decorat-ing),
and demolition of work sites covered by OSHA safety and health standards. They also specify when stairways and
ladders must be provided. They do not apply to ladders that are specifically manufactured for scaffold access and egress,
but they do apply to job- made and manufactured portable ladders intended for general purpose use that are then used for
scaffold access and egress.
Most of this chapter material is taken from the U. S. Department of Labor’s publication Stairways and Ladders ( OSHA
3124). Additions to the chapter are indicated by the standards number from the North Carolina Occupational Safety and
Health Standards for General Industry.
General Requirements
The following general requirements apply to construction covered under 29 CFR Part 1926:
  A stairway or ladder must be provided at all worker points of access where there is a break in elevation of 19 inches
( 48 cm) or more and no ramp, runway, sloped embankment or personnel host is provided.
  When there is only one point of access between levels, it must be kept clear to permit free passage by workers. If
free passage becomes restricted, a second point of access must be provided and used.
  All stairway and ladder fall protection systems required by these rules must be installed and all duties required by
the stairway and ladder rules must be performed before employees begin work that requires them to use stairways or
ladders and their respective fall protection systems.
Stairways
The following general requirements apply to all stairways used in construction and general industry:
  Stairways that will not be a permanent part of the structure on which construction work is performed must have
landings at least 30 inches deep and 22 inches wide ( 76 x 56 cm) at every 12 feet ( 3.7 m) or less of vertical rise.
  Stairways must be installed at least 30 degrees, and no more than 50 degrees, from the horizontal.
  Variations in riser height or stair tread depth must not exceed 1/ 4 inch in any stairway system, including any founda-tion
structure used as one or more treads of the stairs.
  Where door or gates open directly onto a stairway, a platform must be provided that is at least 20 inches ( 51 cm) in
width beyond the swing of the door.
  Metal pan landings and metal pan treads must be secured in place before filling.
  All stairway parts must be free of dangerous projections such as protruding nails.
  Slippery conditions on stairways must be corrected.
  Spiral stairways that will not be a permanent part of the structure may not be used by workers.
7
The following requirements apply to stairs in temporary service during construction:
  Except during construction of the actual stairway, stairways with metal pan landings and treads must not be used
where the treads and/ or landings have not been filled in with concrete or other material, unless the pans of the stairs
and/ or landings are temporarily filled in with wood or other material. All temporary treads and landings must be
replaced when worn below the top edge of the pan.
  Except during construction of the actual stairway, skeleton metal stairs must not be used ( where treads and/ or land-ings
are to be installed at a later date) unless the stairs are fitted with secured temporary treads and landings.
  Temporary treads must be made of wood or other solid material and installed the full width and depth of the stair.
Stairrails and Handrails
The following general requirements apply to all stairrails and handrails:
  Every flight of stairs having four or more risers must be equipped with standard stair railings or standard handrails.
See 1910.23( d)( 1).
  Winding or spiral stairways must be equipped with a handrail to prevent using areas where the tread width is less
than 6 inches ( 15 cm).
  Stairrails installed after March 15, 1991, must not be less than 36 inches ( 91.5 cm) in height.
  Screens, mesh, intermediate vertical members or equivalent intermediate structural members must be provided
between the top rail and stairway steps of the stairrail system.
  Screens or mesh, when used, must extend from the top rail to the stairway step and along the opening between top
rail supports.
  Midrails, when used, must be located midway between the top of the stairrail system and the stairway steps.
  Intermediate vertical members, such as balusters, when used, must not be more than 19 inches ( 48 cm) apart.
  Other intermediate structural members, when used, must be installed so that there are no openings of more than 19
inches ( 48 cm) wide.
  Handrails and the top rails of the stairrail systems must be capable of withstanding, without failure, at least 200
pounds ( 890 n) of weight applied within 2 inches ( 5 cm) of the top edge in any downward or outward direction, at any
point along the top edge.
  The height of handrails must not be more than 37 inches ( 94 cm) or less than 30 inches ( 76 cm) from the upper sur-face
of the handrail to the surface of the tread.
  Stairrail systems and handrails must be surfaced to prevent injuries such as punctures or lacerations and to keep
clothing from snagging.
  Handrails must provide an adequate handhold for employees to grasp to prevent falls.
  The ends of stairrail systems and handrails must be constructed to prevent dangerous projections such as rails pro-truding
beyond the end posts of the system.
  Temporary handrails must have a minimum clearance of 3 inches ( 8 cm) between the handrail and walls, stairrail
systems and other objects.
  Unprotected sides and edges of stairway landings must be provided with standard 42- inch ( 1.1 m) guardrail systems.
8
Ladders
The following general requirements apply to all ladders, including job- made ladders:
  A double- cleated ladder or two or more ladders must be provided when ladders are the only way to enter or exit a
work area having 25 or more employees or when a ladder serves simultaneous two- way traffic. See 1926.1051( a)( 2).
  Ladder rungs, cleats and steps must be parallel, level and uniformly spaced when the ladder is in position for use.
  Trestle ladders or extension sections or base sections of extension trestle ladders must not be more than 20 feet in
length. See 1910.25( c)( 3)( v).
  The spacing of rungs and steps must be on 12- inch centers. Rungs and steps must be corrugated, knurled, dimpled,
coated with skid- resistant material or otherwise treated to minimize the possibility of slipping. See 1910.26( a)( 1)( v)
and 1910.27( b)( 1)( ii).
  Ladders must not be tied or fastened together to create longer sections unless they are specifically designed for such
use.
  A metal spreader or locking device must be provided on each stepladder to hold the front and back sections in an
open position when the ladder is being used.
  Two or more separate ladders used to reach an elevated work area must be offset with a platform or landing between
the ladders, except when portable ladders are used to gain access to fixed ladders.
  Ladder components must be surfaced to prevent injury from punctures or lacerations and to prevent snagging of
clothing.
  Wood ladders must not be coated with any opaque covering, except for identification or warning labels, which may
be placed only on one face of a side rail.
Portable Ladders
  Nonself- supporting and self- supporting portable ladders must support at least four times the maximum intended
load; extra heavy- duty type 1A metal or plastic ladders must sustain 3.3 times the maximum intended load. The abil-ity
of a self- supporting ladder to sustain loads must be determined by applying the load to the ladder in a downward
vertical direction. The ability of a nonself- supporting ladder to sustain loads must be determined by applying the
load in a downward vertical direction when the ladder is placed at a horizontal angle of 75.5 degrees. See
1926.1053( a)( 1)( ii).
  The user should equip all portable rung ladders with nonslip bases when there is a hazard of slipping. Nonslip bases
are not intended as a substitute for care in safely placing, lashing, or holding a ladder that is being used upon oily,
metal, concrete or slippery surfaces. See 1910.25( d)( 2)( xix).
  The minimum width between side rails for portable metal ladders must be 12 inches.
  The rungs and steps of portable metal ladders must be corrugated, knurled, dimpled, coated with skid- resistant mate-rial
or treated to minimize slipping. See 1910.26( a)( 1)( v).
Fixed Ladders
  The minimum design live load must be a single concentrated load of 200 pounds. The number and position of addi-tional
concentrated live- load units of 200 pounds each as determined from anticipated usage of the ladder must be
considered in the design. See 1910.27( a)( 1)( i) and 1910.27( a)( 1)( ii).
  The live loads imposed by persons occupying the ladder must be considered to be concentrated at such points as will
cause the maximum stress in the structural member being considered. See 1910.27( a)( 1)( iii).
  The side rails of through or side- step ladder extensions must extend 42 inches ( 1.1 m) above parapets and landings.
For through ladder extensions, the rungs must be omitted from the extension and must not have less than 18 or more
than 24 inches clearance between rails. For side- step or offset fixed ladder sections, at landings, the side rails and
rungs must be carried to the next regular rung beyond or above the 42 inch minimum. See 1910.27( d)( 3).
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  Design stresses for wood components of ladders must not exceed those specified in 1910.25. All wood parts must be
free from sharp edges and splinters; sound and free from accepted visual inspection from shake, wane compression
failures, decay or other irregularities. Low density wood must not be used. See 1910.25( b)( 1)( i) and 1910.27( a)( 2).
  The minimum clear length of rungs or cleats must be 16 inches ( 41 cm). The distance between rungs, cleats and
steps must not exceed 12 inches and must be uniform throughout the length of the ladder. See 1910.27( b)( 1)( iii) and
1910.27( b)( 1)( ii).
  The rungs and steps of fixed metal ladders manufactured after March 15, 1991, must be corrugated, knurled, dim-pled,
coated with skid- resistant material or treated to minimize slipping. See 1926.1053( a)( 6)( i).
  The minimum perpendicular clearance between the centerline of fixed ladder rungs, cleats, steps and any obstruction
on the climbing side of the ladder must be 30 inches ( 76 cm). When unavoidable obstructions are encountered, the
distance may be reduced to 24 inches ( 61 cm), provided that a deflection device is installed to guide employees
around the obstruction.
  The step- across distance from the nearest edge of ladder to the nearest edge of equipment or structure must not be
more than 12 inches, or less than 21/ 2 inches. See 1910.27( c)( 6).
  A clear width of at least 15 inches ( 38 cm) must be provided each way from the centerline of the ladder in the climb-ing
space, except when cages or wells are necessary.
  Where the total length of a climb on a fixed ladder equals or exceeds 24 feet ( 7.3 m), one of the following require-ments
must be met: fixed ladders must be equipped with either ( a) ladder safety devices; ( b) self- retracting lifelines
with rest platforms at intervals not to exceed 150 feet ( 45.7 m); or ( c) a cage or well, and multiple ladder sections,
each ladder section not to exceed 50 feet ( 15.2 m) in length. Ladder sections must be offset from adjacent sections,
and landing platforms must be provided at maximum intervals of 50 feet ( 15.2 m). ( This applies to construction. See
1926.1053( a)( 19). For general industry requirements see 1910.27( d)( 2).)
  The side rails of through or side- step fixed ladders must extend 42 inches ( 1.1 m) above the top level or landing
platform served by the ladder. For a parapet ladder, the access level must be at the roof if the parapet is cut to permit
passage through it. If the parapet is continuous, the access level is the top of the parapet.
Cages for Fixed Ladders
  Horizontal bands must be fastened to the side rails of rail ladders or directly to the structure, building or equipment
for individual- rung ladders.
  Vertical bars must be on the inside of the horizontal bands and must be fastened to them.
  Cages must not extend less than 27 inches ( 68 cm) or more than 30 inches ( 76 cm) from the centerline of the step or
rung and must not be less than 27 inches ( 68 cm) wide.
  The inside of the cage must be clear of projections.
  Horizontal bands must be spaced at intervals not more than 4 feet ( 1.2 m) apart measured from centerline to center-line.
  Vertical bars must be spaced at intervals not more than 9.5 inches ( 24 cm) apart measured from centerline to center-line.
  The bottom of the cage must be between 7 feet ( 2.1 m) and 8 feet ( 2.4 m) above the point of access to the bottom of
the ladder. The bottom of the cage must be flared not less than 4 inches ( 10 cm) between the bottom horizontal band
and the next higher band.
  The top of the cage must be a minimum of 42 inches ( 1.1 m) above the top of the platform or the point of access at
the top of the ladder. Provisions must be made for access to the platform or other point of access.
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Wells for Fixed Ladders
  Wells must completely encircle the ladder.
  Wells must be free of projections.
  The inside face of the well on the climbing side of the ladder must extend between 27 inches ( 68 cm) and 30 inches
( 76 cm) from the centerline of the step or rung.
  The inside width of the well must be at least 30 inches ( 76 cm).
  The bottom of the well above the point of access to the bottom of the ladder must be between 7 feet ( 2.1 m) and 8
feet ( 2.4 m).
Ladder Safety Devices and Related Support Systems for Fixed Ladders
  All safety devices must be capable of withstanding, without failure, a drop test consisting of a 500- pound weight
( 226 kg) dropping 18 inches ( 41 cm).
  All safety devices must permit the worker to ascend or descend without continually having to hold, push or pull any
part of the device, leaving both hands free for climbing.
  All safety devices must be activated within 2 feet (. 61 m) after a fall occurs and must limit the descending velocity
of an employee to 7 feet/ second ( 2.1 m/ sec) or less.
  The connection between the carrier or lifeline and the point of attachment to the body belt or harness must not
exceed 9 inches ( 23 cm) in length.
Mounting Ladder Safety Devices for Fixed Ladders
  Mountings for rigid carriers must be attached at each end of the carrier, with intermediate mountings, spaced along the
entire length of the carrier, to provide the necessary strength to stop workers’ falls.
  Mountings for flexible carriers must be attached at each end of the carrier. Cable guides for flexible carriers must be
installed with a spacing between 25 feet ( 7.6 m) and 40 feet ( 12.2 m) along the entire length of the carrier, to prevent
wind damage to the system.
  The design and installation of mountings and cable guides must not reduce the strength of the ladder.
  Side rails and steps or rungs for side- step fixed ladders must be continuous in extension.
Use of All Ladders ( Including Job- made Ladders)
  When portable ladders are used for access to an upper landing surface, the side rails must extend at least 3 feet (. 9
m) above the upper landing surface. When such an extension is not possible, the ladder must be secured, and a
grasping device such as a grab rail must be provided to assist workers in mounting and dismounting the ladder. A
ladder extension must not deflect under a load that would cause the ladder to slip off its support.
  Ladders must be maintained free of oil, grease and other slipping hazards.
  Ladders must not be loaded beyond the maximum intended load for which they were built or beyond their manufac-turer’s
rated capacity.
  Ladders must be used only for the purpose for which they were designed.
  Nonself- supporting ladders must be used at an angle where the horizontal distance from the top support to the foot
of the ladder is approximately one- quarter of the working length of the ladder. Wood job- made ladders with spliced
side rails must be used at an angle where the horizontal distance is one- eighth the working length of the ladder.
  Fixed ladders must be used at a pitch no greater than 90 degrees from the horizontal, measured from the back side of
the ladder.
  Ladders must be used only on stable and level surfaces unless secured to prevent accidental movement.
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  Ladders must not be used on slippery surfaces unless secured or provided with slip- resistant feet to prevent acciden-tal
movement. Slip- resistant feet must not be used as a substitute for the care in placing, lashing or holding a ladder
upon slippery surfaces.
  The area around the top and bottom of the ladders must be kept clear.
  The top of a nonself- supporting ladder must be placed with two rails supported equally unless it is equipped with a
single support attachment.
  Ladders must not be moved, shifted or extended while in use.
  Ladders must have nonconductive siderails if they are used where the worker or the ladder could contact exposed
energized electrical equipment.
  Cross- bracing on the rear section of stepladders must not be used for climbing unless the ladders are designed and
provided with steps for climbing on both front and rear sections.
  Ladders must be inspected by a competent person for visible defects on a periodic basis and after any incident that
could affect their safe use.
  Single- rail ladders must not be used.
  When ascending or descending a ladder, the worker must face the ladder.
  Each worker must use at least one hand to grasp the ladder when moving up or down the ladder.
  A worker on a ladder must not carry any object or load that could cause the worker to lose balance and fall.
Structural Defects
  Portable ladders with structural defects, such as broken or missing rungs, cleats, or steps, broken or split rails, corroded
components, or other faulty or defective components, must immediately be marked defective or tagged with “ Do Not
Use” or similar language and withdrawn from service until repaired.
  Fixed ladders with structural defects— such as broken or missing rungs, cleats, or steps, broken or split rails, or cor-roded
components— must be withdrawn from service until repaired.
  Defective fixed ladders are considered withdrawn from use when they are ( a) immediately tagged with “ Do Not
Use” or similar language; ( b) marked in a manner that identifies them as defective; or ( c) blocked ( such as with a
plywood attachment that spans several rungs).
  Ladder repairs must restore the ladder to a condition meeting its original design criteria before the ladder is returned
to use.
Training Requirements
Under the provisions of the standard, employers must provide a training program for each employee using ladders and
stairways. The program must enable each employee to recognize hazards related to ladders and stairways and to use prop-er
procedures to minimize these hazards. For example, employers must ensure that each employee is trained by a compe-tent
person in the following areas, as applicable:
  The nature of fall hazards in the work area
  The correct procedures for erecting, maintaining and disassembling the fall protection systems to be used
  The proper construction, use, placement and care in handling of all stairways and ladders
  The maximum intended load- carrying capacities of ladders used
In addition, retraining must be provided for each employee, as necessary, so that the employee maintains the under-standing
and knowledge acquired through compliance with the standard.
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Terms and Definitions
Cleat— A ladder crosspiece of rectangular cross section placed on edge upon which a person may step while ascending
or descending a ladder.
Double- Cleat Ladder— A ladder with a center rail to allow simultaneous two- way traffic for employees ascending or
descending.
Failure— Load refusal, breakage or separation of components.
Fixed Ladder— A ladder that cannot be readily moved or carried because it is an integral part of a building or struc-ture.
Handrail— A rail used to provide employees with a handhold for support.
Job- made Ladder— A ladder that is fabricated by employees, typically at the construction site; not commercially man-ufactured.
Load Refusal— The point where the structural members lose their ability to carry the load.
Point of Access— All areas used by employees for work- related passage from one area or level to another.
Portable Ladder— A ladder that can be readily moved or carried.
Riser Height— The vertical distance from the top of a tread or platform/ landing to the top of the next higher tread or
platform/ landing.
Side- step Fixed Ladder— A fixed ladder that requires a person to get off at the top to step to the side of the ladder side
rails to reach the landing.
Single- Cleat Ladder— A ladder consisting of a pair of side rails connected together by cleats, rungs, or steps.
Stairrail System— A vertical barrier erected along the unprotected sides and edges of a stairway to prevent employees
from falling to lower levels.
Temporary Service Stairway— A stairway where permanent treads and/ or landings are to be filled in at a later date.
Through Fixed Ladder— A fixed ladder that requires a person getting off at the top to step between the side rails of
the ladder to reach the landing.
Tread Depth— The horizontal distance from front to back of a tread, excluding nosing, if any.
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4
Construction Industry Fall Protection Requirements
1926 Subpart M
Fall protection is a broad concept that includes training, procedures, rules, systems and methods intended to protect
workers from fall hazards. Fall protection doesn’t mean bulky or cumbersome equipment, it doesn’t interfere with work
tasks, and it doesn’t get in the way of co- workers— if you understand the concept and apply it appropriately. Fall protec-tion
also implies shared responsibilities. If you are an employer, you must be aware of fall hazards, and you must elimi-nate
them or control your employees’ exposure to them. If you are an employee, you are responsible for following the
policies, procedures and training requirements established by your employer. Building owners and managers, architects,
engineers, and equipment manufacturers also have responsible roles to play during a typical construction project. This
guide will help you understand the fall protection concept and how it applies to the construction industry in North
Carolina. Words and terms used that pertain to standard requirements are defined within this publication.
In 1995, according to a report by the U. S. Department of Labor, 1,048 construction workers died on the job, with 32
percent, or 335 of them, resulting from falls. In North Carolina, during period of October 2003 through August 2007, a
total of 306 fatalities were reported, 18 percent resulting from falls. Each year, falls consistently account for the greatest
number of fatalities in the construction industry and are always a major concern in other industries. Events surrounding
these types of accidents often involve a number of factors, including unstable working surfaces, misuse of fall protection
equipment and human error. Studies have shown that the use of guardrails, fall arrest systems, safety nets, covers and
travel restriction systems can prevent many deaths and injuries from falls.
OSHA standards require fall protection in construction when working from unguarded surfaces above 6 feet ( or 10 feet
on scaffolds) or at any height when above machinery or equipment. For steel erection, however, 1926 Subpart R, state-specific
modifications to the new OSHA Subpart R have been approved and are addressed in 13 NCAC 7F. 0201( 4). In
general, “ steel erection” activity now requires fall protection at heights greater than 15 feet, with exceptions for connec-tors
and deckers in a “ controlled decking zone” between 15 and 30 feet. All steel erection workers must be protected at
heights greater than two stories or 30 feet. Employees engaged in leading edge work require fall protection at 6 feet.
Training Workers About Fall Protection
Employer Responsibilities
If you are an employer, you need to be aware of fall hazards at your workplace, and you must act to minimize those
hazards. Selecting fall protection is the first step toward meeting that responsibility. The second step is training workers
so they are familiar with the fall protection they will use. Subpart M, 1926.503, requires employers to provide training for
all workers exposed to fall hazards. A competent person must provide training that ensures workers will recognize and
use appropriate procedures to minimize exposure. In addition, workers who use personal fall- arrest systems must know:
  How to wear the equipment
  The proper hookup and attachment methods for the equipment
  Appropriate anchoring and tie- off techniques
  How to estimate free fall distances
  Inspection and storage procedures for the equipment
  Self- rescue procedures and techniques
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Retraining
Workers who do not recognize fall hazards at a particular work area must be retrained. Other reasons for retraining
include changes that make earlier training obsolete, changes in the types of fall protection equipment used by workers, or
a worker’s failure to use fall protection equipment effectively.
Documenting Training
Employers must maintain a written record of each worker’s fall protection training. The record must document the
worker’s name, the date worker was trained, and the trainer’s signature.
Low- slope Roofs and Steep Roofs
Fall protection as addressed in Subpart M, 1926.500( b), defines a roof— relative to any roof— as the exterior surface on
the top of a building. However, concrete form work or a floor that temporarily becomes the top surface of a building
under construction is not a roof. Subpart M classifies roofs into two types: low slope and steep.
Low- slope Roofs— Roofs With Slopes Less Than or Equal to 4/ 12 ( Vertical to Horizontal)
If you do roofing work on a low- slope roof with unpro-tected
sides and edges and you are 6 feet or more above a
lower level, you must use one of the following fall protec-tion
systems:
  Guardrail system
  Safety net system
  Personal fall arrest system ( PFAS)
  Warning line system and guardrail system
  Warning line system and safety- net system
  Warning line system and personal fall arrest system
  Warning line system and safety- monitoring system
  Safety- monitoring system ( if the roof is no wider
than 50 feet)
Steep Roofs— Roofs With Slopes Greater Than 4/ 12
If you do roofing work on a steep roof with unprotected sides and edges and you are 6 feet or more above a lower
level, you must use one of the following fall protection sys-tems:
  Guardrail system with toeboards
  Safety net system
  Personal fall arrest system ( PFAS)
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