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PEANUT INFORMATION 2018 2018 PEANUT INFORMATION Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by North Carolina Cooperative Extension nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your county Cooperative Extension agent. A PRECAUTIONARY STATEMENT ON PESTICIDES Pesticides must be used carefully to protect against human injury and harm to the environment. Diagnose your pest problem, and select the proper pesticide if one is needed. Follow label use directions, and obey all federal, state, and local pesticide laws and regulations. This publication is also available at content.ces.ncsu.edu/peanut-information. Published by NC State Extension Distributed in furtherance of the acts of Congress of May 8 and June 30, 1914. North Carolina State University and North Carolina A&T State University commit themselves to positive action to secure equal opportunity regardless of race, color, creed, national origin, religion, sex, age, or disability. In addition, the two Universities welcome all persons without regard to sexual orientation. North Carolina State University, North Carolina A&T State University, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and local governments cooperating. 1,800 copies of this public document were printed at a cost of $4,137.50 or $2.29 per copy. AG-331 (Revised) 1/18—1.8M—BS/BSPeanut acreage and pod yield in North Carolina: 1909 to 20160500100015002000250030003500400045005000190919141919192419291934193919441949195419591964196919741979198419891994199920042002014Yield (lb/acre)Acreage × 100Prepared by David L. Jordan Coordinating Author and Extension Specialist—Department of Crop and Soil Sciences Rick L. Brandenburg Extension Specialist—Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology A. Blake Brown Extension Economist—Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics S. Gary Bullen Extension Associate—Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics Gary T. Roberson Extension Specialist—Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering Barbara Shew Extension Specialist—Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology Published by NC State Extension College of Agriculture and Life Sciences North Carolina State University The North Carolina Peanut Growers Association provided financial support for publishing 2018 Peanut Information. 2018 Information PEANUTCopyright © 2018 by North Carolina State University For information, contact the NC State Copyright & Digital Scholarship Center.2018 Peanut Information | iii Contents EXTENSION PERSONNEL WORKING WITH PEANUTS.................................................v 1. SITUATION AND OUTLOOK.......................................................................................1 2. PEANUT SEED.........................................................................................................16 3. PEANUT PRODUCTION PRACTICES.......................................................................20 4. PEANUT WEED MANAGEMENT............................................................................46 5. PEANUT INSECT AND MITE MANAGEMENT........................................................80 6. PEANUT DISEASE MANAGEMENT......................................................................100 7. PLANTING, HARVESTING, AND CURING PEANUTS...........................................138 8. GUIDELINES FOR THE NORTH CAROLINA PEANUT PRODUCTION CONTEST...154 9. COMPATIBILITY OF AGROCHEMICALS APPLIED TO PEANUT............................159 10. PEANUT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT AND PEANUT INDUSTRY TERMINOLOGY....................................................................167iv | 2018 Peanut Information 2018 Peanut Information | v EXTENSION PERSONNEL WORKING WITH PEANUTS County Extension personnel with peanut responsibilities as of January 1, 2018: County Name City Telephone Beaufort Rod Gurganus Washington (252) 946-0111 Bertie Billy Barrow Windsor (252) 794-5317 Bladen Bruce McLean Jr. Elizabethtown (910) 862-4591 Chowan Matthew Leary Edenton (252) 482-6585 Columbus Michael Shaw Whiteville (910) 640-6605 Craven-Carteret Mike Carroll New Bern (252) 633-1477 Cumberland Anthony Growe Fayetteville (910) 321-6875 Duplin Blake Sandlin Kenansville (910) 296-2143 Edgecombe Art Bradley Tarboro (252) 641-7815 Gates Paul Smith Gatesville (252) 357-1400 Greene Roy Thagard Snow Hill (252) 747-5831 Halifax Arthur Whitehead Halifax (252) 583-5161 Harnett Brian Parrish Lillington (910) 893-7530 Hertford Josh Holland Winton (252) 358-7822 Johnston Tim Britton Smithfield (919) 989-5380 Jones–Lenoir Jacob Morgan Trenton (252) 448-9621 Martin Al Cochran Williamston (252) 792-1621 Nash Maryanna Bennett Nashville (252) 459-9810 Northampton Craig Ellison Jackson (252) 534-2711 Onslow Melissa Huffman Jacksonville (910) 455-5873 Pender Mark Seitz Burgaw (910) 259-1235 Perquimans Dylan Lilley Hertford (252) 426-5428 Pitt Lance Grimes Greenville (252) 902-1702 Robeson Mac Malloy Lumberton (910) 671-3276 Sampson Della King Clinton (910) 592-7161 Scotland Randy Wood Laurinburg (910) 277-2422 Washington Anna-Beth Williams Plymouth (252) 793-2163 Wayne Tyler Whaley Goldsboro (919) 731-1520 Wilson Norman Harrell Wilson (252) 237-0111vi | 2018 Peanut Information NC State University Extension specialists with peanut responsibilities as of January 1, 2018: Name and email Specialty Phone Rick Brandenburg rick_brandenburg@ncsu.edu Insects (919) 515-8876 Blake Brown blake_brown@ncsu.edu Economics (919) 515-4536 Gary Bullen sgbullen@ncsu.edu Economics (919) 515-6095 David Jordan david_jordan@ncsu.edu Agronomy and Weeds (919) 515-4068 Gary Roberson gtrobers@ncsu.edu Engineering (919) 515-6715 Barbara Shew barbara_shew@ncsu.edu Diseases (919) 515-6984 Directors of peanut grower organizations: Name and email Organization Phone Bob Sutter sutter@aboutpeanuts.com North Carolina Peanut Growers Association Inc. (252) 459-5060 Dell Cotton Dcotton25@vcpeanutdma.com Peanut Growers Cooperative Marketing Association (757) 562-41032018 Peanut Information | 1 1. SITUATION AND OUTLOOK A. VIRGINIA TYPE PEANUTS: SITUATION AND OUTLOOK A. Blake Brown Extension Economist—Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics United States peanut production was estimated at 7,786 billion pounds in 2017, according to the USDA October Crop Report, up from 5,581 billion pounds in 2016. Harvested acres for the U.S. increased from 1.536 million acres in 2016 to 1.829 million acres in 2017. Yield per acre was estimated at 4,257 pounds, up from 3,634 pounds in 2016. In North Carolina, the USDA October forecast was for 118,000 harvested acres, up from 99,000 harvested acres in 2016. Forecast yields for North Carolina were estimated to be 4,100 pounds per acre. Despite greater production, end of August 2017 farmer stock equivalent of U.S. peanut stocks was down to 989 billion pounds from 1,239 billion pounds for 2016. The Price Loss Coverage (PLC) provisions for peanuts under the 2014 Farm Bill are the primary drivers for increased acreage of peanuts. However, the payment limitation of $125,000 per entity and perhaps reluctance to depart too far from crop rotations are limiting factors to increased production. With the reference price for peanuts of $535 per ton well above the cost of production in the runner areas, farmers with peanut and generic base overwhelmingly chose the PLC option. The PLC payment rate for peanuts equals the difference between the reference price of $535 per ton of PLC yield and the greater of the national marketing year average (MYA) price or loan rate of $355 per ton. Payments are on 85 percent of base acres and are reduced by 7.3 percent for sequestration. The MYA for 2016 was $394 per ton, and the PLC payment rate was $141 per ton of base yield. 2 | 2018 Peanut Information B. PEANUT PRODUCTION BUDGETS S. Gary Bullen Extension Economist—Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics David Jordan Peanut Specialist—Department of Crop and Soil Sciences The budgets in the following tables represent costs and returns that are achieved by many growers in different regions of North Carolina using strip-till or conventional production technologies. The budgets do not represent average costs and returns. Budgets are intended to be used as guides for planning purposes only. They do not include sprays for Sclerotinia blight or fumigation for CBR. The cost of gypsum is assumed to be $47.75 per ton; less expensive sources are available, although transportation costs can be significant. Current information on the peanut outlook and situation, budgets, farm management, and more is available at the North Carolina State University Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics website: www.ag-econ.ncsu.edu.2018 Peanut Information | 3 Table 1-1. Estimated Costs and Returns Per Acre of RUNNER STRIP-TILL Peanuts, 2018—4,000-Pound Yield, 4-Row Equipment Item Quantity and Unit Price or Cost per Unit ($) Total per Acre ($) Your Farm 1. GROSS RECEIPTS Peanuts 4000.00 lb 0.20 800.00 Total Receipts 800.00 2. VARIABLE COSTS* Seed 110.00 lb 0.80 88.00 Inoculant 1.00 acre 6.00 6.00 Fertilizer* Nitrogen 0.00 lb 0.12 0.00 Phosphate 48.00 lb 0.32 15.36 Potash 100.00 lb 0.20 20.00 Manganese 3.00 lb 0.35 1.05 Boron 2.50 lb 1.35 3.38 Lime (prorated) 0.33 ton 46.00 15.18 Gypsum (spread) 0.30 ton 47.75 14.33 Herbicides 1.00 acre 62.54 62.54 Insecticides 1.00 acre 18.98 18.98 Fungicides 1.00 acre 81.63 81.63 Scouting 1.00 acre 16.00 16.00 Hauling 2.00 ton 12.00 23.95 Drying & Cleaning 2.00 ton 45.00 89.82 State Check-off Fee 2.00 ton 3.00 6.00 National Assessment $800.00 0.095% 7.60 Crop Insurance 1.00 acre 30.00 30.00 Tractor/Machinery 1.00 acre 55.52 55.52 Labor 3.85 hours 11.27 43.39 Interest on Operating Capital $212.60 5.0% 10.63 Total Variable Costs 609.36 3. INCOME ABOVE VARIABLE COSTS 190.64 4. FIXED COSTS Machinery/Overhead 1.00 acre 141.41 141.41 Total Fixed Costs 141.41 5. TOTAL COSTS 750.77 6. NET RETURNS TO LAND, RISK, & MANAGEMENT 49.23Please note: This budget is for planning purposes only. It does not include sprays for Sclerotinia blight, fumigation or Proline in-furrow for CBR, land rent, or prohexadione calcium. *Fertilizer is listed as cost per lb of fertilizer listed with no adjustments for % of N, P2O5, and K2O.4 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 1-2. Estimated Costs and Returns Per Acre of RUNNER CONVENTIONAL-TILL Peanuts. 2018—4,000-Pound Yield, 4-Row Equipment Item Quantity and Unit Price or Cost per Unit ($) Total per Acre ($) Your Farm 1. GROSS RECEIPTS Peanuts 4,000 lb 0.20 800.00 Total Receipts 800.00 2. VARIABLE COSTS Seed 110.00 lb 0.80 88.00 Inoculant 1.00 acre 6.00 6.00 Fertilizer* Nitrogen 0.00 lb 0.12 0.00 Phosphate 48.00 lb 0.32 15.36 Potash 100.00 lb 0.20 20.00 Boron 2.50 lb 1.35 3.38 Manganese 3.00 lb 0.35 1.05 Lime (prorated) 0.33 ton 46.00 15.18 Gypsum (spread) 0.30 ton 47.75 14.33 Herbicides 1.00 acre 47.37 47.37 Insecticides 1.00 acre 18.73 18.73 Fungicides 1.00 acre 81.38 81.38 Scouting 1.00 acre 16.00 16.00 Hauling 2.00 ton 12.00 23.95 Drying & Cleaning 2.00 ton 45.00 89.82 State Check-off Fee 2.00 ton 3.00 6.00 National Assessment $800.00 0.095% 7.60 Crop Insurance 1.00 acre 30.00 30.00 Tractor/Machinery 1.00 acre 59.43 59.43 Labor 4.52 hours 11.27 50.94 Interest on Operating Capital $210.58 5.0% 10.53 Total Variable Costs 605.05 3. INCOME ABOVE VARIABLE COSTS 194.95 4. FIXED COSTS Machinery/Overhead 1.00 acre 143.60 143.60 Total Fixed Costs 143.60 5. TOTAL COSTS 748.65 6. NET RETURNS TO LAND, RISK, & MANAGEMENT 51.35Please note: This budget is for planning purposes only. It does not include sprays for Sclerotinia blight, fumigation or Proline in-furrow for CBR, land rent, or prohexadione calcium. *Fertilizer is listed as cost per lb of fertilizer listed with no adjustments for % of N, P2O5, and K2O.2018 Peanut Information | 5 Table 1-3. Estimated Costs and Returns Per Acre of VIRGINIA STRIP-TILL Peanuts, 2018—4,000-Pound Yield, 4-Row Equipment Item Quantity and Unit Price or Cost/ Unit ($) Total per Acre ($) Your Farm 1. GROSS RECEIPTS Peanuts 4,000 lb 0.23 900.00 Total Receipts 900.00 2. VARIABLE COSTS Seed 130.00 lb 0.85 110.50 Inoculant 1.00 acre 6.00 6.00 Fertilizer* Nitrogen 15.00 lb 0.12 0.00 Phosphate 48.00 lb 0.32 15.36 Potash 100.00 lb 0.20 20.00 Manganese 3.00 lb 0.35 1.05 Boron 2.50 lb 1.35 3.38 Lime (prorated) 0.33 ton 46.00 15.18 Gypsum (spread) 0.60 ton 47.75 28.65 Herbicides 1.00 acre 62.54 62.54 Insecticides 1.00 acre 18.98 18.98 Fungicides 1.00 acre 81.63 81.63 Scouting 1.00 acre 16.00 16.00 Hauling 2.00 ton 12.00 23.95 Drying & Cleaning 2.00 ton 45.00 89.82 State Check-off Fee 2.00 ton 3.00 6.00 National Assessment $900.00 0.095% 8.55 Crop Insurance 1.00 acre 30.00 30.00 Tractor/Machinery 1.00 acre 55.52 55.52 Labor 3.85 hours 11.27 43.39 Interest on Operating Capital $239.09 5.0% 11.95 Total Variable Costs 648.45 3. INCOME ABOVE VARIABLE COSTS 251.55 4. FIXED COSTS Machinery/Overhead 1.00 acre 144.14 144.14 Total Fixed Costs 144.14 5. TOTAL COSTS 792.59 6. NET RETURNS TO LAND, RISK, & MANAGEMENT 107.41 Please note: This budget is for planning purposes only. It does not include sprays for Sclerotinia blight, fumigation or Proline in-furrow for CBR, land rent, or prohexadione calcium. *Fertilizer is listed as cost per lb of fertilizer listed with no adjustments for % of N, P2O5, and K2O.6 | 2018 Peanut Information *Table 1-4. Estimated Costs and Returns Per Acre of VIRGINIA CONVENTIONAL-TILL Peanuts, 2018—4,000-Pound Yield, 4-Row Equipment Item Quantity and Unit Price or Cost per Unit ($) Total per Acre ($) Your Farm 1. GROSS RECEIPTS Peanuts 4,000 lb 0.23 900.00 Total Receipts 900.00 2. VARIABLE COSTS Seed 130.00 lb 0.85 110.50 Inoculant 1.00 acre 6.00 6.00 Fertilizer* Nitrogen 0.00 lb 0.12 0.00 Phosphate 48.00 lb 0.32 15.36 Potash 100.00 lb 0.20 20.00 Manganese 3.00 lb 0.35 1.05 Boron 2.50 lb 1.35 3.38 Lime (prorated) 0.33 ton 46.00 15.18 Gypsum (spread) 0.60 ton 47.75 28.65 Herbicides 1.00 acre 47.37 47.37 Insecticides 1.00 acre 18.73 18.73 Fungicides 1.00 acre 81.38 81.38 Scouting 1.00 acre 16.00 16.00 Hauling 2.00 ton 12.00 23.95 Drying & Cleaning 2.00 ton 45.00 89.82 State Check-off Fee 2.00 ton 3.00 6.00 National Assessment $900.00 0.095% 8.55 Crop Insurance 1.00 acre 30.00 30.00 Tractor/Machinery 1.00 acre 59.43 59.43 Labor 4.52 11.27 50.94 Interest on Operating Capital $228.99 5.0% 11.45 Total Variable Costs 643.74 3. INCOME ABOVE VARIABLE COSTS 256.26 4. FIXED COSTS Machinery/Overhead 1.00 acre 146.31 146.31 Total Fixed Costs 146.31 5. TOTAL COSTS 790.05 6. NET RETURNS TO LAND, RISK, & MANAGEMENT 109.95 Please note: This budget is for planning purposes only. It does not include sprays for Sclerotinia blight, fumigation or Proline in-furrow for CBR, land rent, or prohexadione calcium. *Fertilizer is listed as cost per lb of fertilizer listed with no adjustments for % of N, P2O5, and K2O.2018 Peanut Information | 7 Table 1-5. Return to Land, Overhead, and Management at Various Yields and Costs of Production for Peanut Peanut Yield (pounds/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $600/ton Potential Contract Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 750 800 850 900 950 1000 Net Return ($/acre) 3000 (1.5 tons) 150 100 50 0 -50 -100 3500 (1.75 tons) 300 250 200 150 100 50 4000 (2 tons) 450 400 350 300 250 200 4500 (2.25 tons) 600 550 500 450 400 350 5000 (2.5 tons) 750 700 650 600 550 500 Peanut Yield (pounds/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $535/ton Reference Price Over Contract Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 750 800 850 900 950 1000 Net Return ($/acre) 3000 (1.5 tons) 53 3 -47 -97 -147 -197 3500 (1.75 tons) 186 136 86 36 -14 -64 4000 (2 tons) 320 270 220 170 120 70 4500 (2.25 tons) 454 404 354 304 254 204 5000 (2.5 tons) 588 538 488 438 388 338 Peanut Yield (pounds/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $470/ton Loan Rate Plus Payment Rate Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 750 800 850 900 950 1000 Net Return ($/acre) 3000 (1.5 tons) -45 -95 -145 -195 -245 -295 3500 (1.75 tons) 73 23 -27 -77 -127 -177 4000 (2 tons) 190 140 90 40 -10 -60 4500 (2.25 tons) 308 258 208 158 108 58 5000 (2.5 tons) 425 375 325 275 225 175 Continued on the next page.8 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 1-5. Return to Land, Overhead, and Management at Various Yields and Costs of Production for Peanut (continued) Peanut Yield (pounds/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $405/ton Estimated Average World Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 750 800 850 900 950 1000 Net Return ($/acre) 3000 (1.5 tons) -143 -193 -243 -293 -343 -393 3500 (1.75 tons) -41 -91 -141 -198 -241 -291 4000 (2 tons) 60 10 -40 -90 -140 -190 4500 (2.25 tons) 161 111 61 11 -39 -89 5000 (2.5 tons) 263 213 163 113 63 13 Peanut Yield (pounds/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $355/ton Loan Rate Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 750 800 850 900 950 1000 Net Return ($/acre) 3000 (1.5 tons) -218 -268 -318 -368 -418 -468 3500 (1.75 tons) -129 -179 -229 -279 -329 -379 4000 (2 tons) -40 -90 -140 -190 -240 -290 4500 (2.25 tons) 49 -1 -51 -101 -151 -201 5000 (2.5 tons) 138 88 -12 -62 -112 -1622018 Peanut Information | 9 Table 1-6. Return to Land, Overhead, and Management at Various Yields and Costs of Production for Corn Corn Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $3/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 400 450 500 550 600 Net Return ($/acre) 60 -220 -270 -320 -370 -420 90 -130 -180 -230 -280 -330 120 -40 -90 -140 -190 -240 150 50 0 -50 -100 -150 180 140 90 40 -10 -60 Corn Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $5/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 400 450 500 550 600 Net Return ($/acre) 60 -100 -150 -200 -250 -300 90 50 0 -50 -100 -150 120 200 150 100 50 0 150 350 300 250 200 150 180 500 450 400 350 300 Corn Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $7/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 400 450 500 550 600 Net Return ($/acre) 60 20 -30 -80 -130 -180 90 230 180 130 80 30 120 440 390 340 290 240 150 650 600 550 500 450 180 860 810 760 710 66010 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 1-7. Return to Land, Overhead, and Management at Various Yields and Costs of Production for Grain Sorghum Grain Sorghum Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $2.55/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 350 400 450 500 550 Net Return ($/acre) 60 -197 -247 -297 -347 -397 90 -121 -171 -221 -271 -321 120 -44 -94 -144 -194 -244 150 33 -17 -67 -117 -167 180 309 259 209 159 109 Grain Sorghum Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $4.25/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 350 400 450 500 550 Net Return ($/acre) 60 -95 -145 -195 -215 -265 90 33 -17 -67 -117 -167 120 160 110 60 10 -40 150 288 238 188 138 88 180 415 365 315 265 215 Grain Sorghum Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $6.15/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 350 400 450 500 550 Net Return ($/acre) 60 19 -31 -81 -131 -181 90 204 154 104 54 4 120 388 338 288 238 188 150 573 523 473 423 373 180 757 707 657 607 5572018 Peanut Information | 11 Table 1-8. Return to Land, Overhead, and Management at Various Yields and Costs of Production for Cotton Cotton Yield (pounds lint/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $0.60/pound Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 500 550 600 650 700 Net Return ($/acre) 300 -320 -370 -420 -470 -520 600 -140 -190 -240 -290 -340 900 40 -10 -60 -110 -160 1200 220 170 120 70 20 1500 400 350 300 250 200 Cotton Yield (pounds lint/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $0.80/pound Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 500 550 600 650 700 Net Return ($/acre) 300 -260 -310 -360 -410 -460 600 -20 -70 -120 -170 -220 900 220 170 120 70 20 1200 460 410 360 310 260 1500 700 650 600 550 500 Cotton Yield (pounds lint/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $1.00/pound Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 500 550 600 650 700 Net Return ($/acre) 300 -200 -250 -300 -350 -400 600 100 50 0 -50 -100 900 400 350 300 250 200 1200 700 650 600 550 500 1500 1000 950 900 850 80012 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 1-9. Return to Land, Overhead, and Management at Various Yields and Costs of Production for Soybean Soybean Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $6/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 160 190 220 250 280 Net Return ($/acre) 20 -40 -70 -100 -130 -160 30 20 -10 -40 -70 -100 40 80 50 20 -10 -40 50 140 110 80 50 20 60 200 170 140 110 80 Soybean Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $10/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 160 190 220 250 280 Net Return ($/acre) 20 40 10 -20 -50 -80 30 140 110 80 50 20 40 240 210 180 150 120 50 340 310 280 250 220 60 440 410 380 350 320 Soybean Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $14/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 160 190 220 250 280 Net Return ($/acre) 20 120 90 60 30 0 30 260 230 200 170 140 40 400 370 340 310 280 50 540 510 480 450 420 60 680 650 620 590 5602018 Peanut Information | 13 Table 1-10. Return to Land, Overhead, and Management at Various Yields and Costs of Production for Wheat Wheat Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $3/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 250 300 350 400 450 Net Return ($/acre) 50 -100 -150 -200 -250 -300 65 -55 -105 -155 -205 -255 80 -10 -60 -110 -160 -210 95 35 -15 -65 -115 -165 110 80 30 -20 -70 -120 Wheat Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $5/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 250 300 350 400 450 Net Return ($/acre) 50 0 -50 -100 -150 -200 65 75 25 -25 -75 -125 80 150 100 50 0 -50 95 225 175 125 75 25 110 300 250 200 150 100 Wheat Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $7/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 250 300 350 400 450 Net Return ($/acre) 50 100 50 0 -50 -100 65 205 155 105 55 5 80 310 260 210 160 110 95 415 365 315 265 215 110 520 470 420 370 32014 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 1-11. Return to Land, Overhead, and Management at Various Yields and Costs of Production for Sweet Potato Sweet Potato Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $5.4/pound Price Assuming 70% No. 1, 20% Jumbo, and 10% Canner Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 2,000 2,300 2,600 2,900 3,200 Net Return ($/acre) 400 160 -140 -440 -740 -1,040 450 430 130 -170 -470 -770 500 700 400 100 -200 -500 550 970 670 370 70 -230 600 1,240 940 640 340 40 Sweet Potato Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $6.4/pound Price Assuming 70% No. 1, 20% Jumbo, and 10% Canner Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 2,000 2,300 2,600 2,900 3,200 Net Return ($/acre) 400 560 260 40 -260 -560 450 880 580 280 -20 -320 500 1,200 900 600 300 0 550 1,520 1,220 920 620 320 600 1,840 1,540 1,240 940 640 Sweet Potato Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $7.4/pound Price Assuming 70% No. 1, 20% Jumbo, and 10% Canner Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 2,000 2,300 2,600 2,900 3,200 Net Return ($/acre) 400 960 660 360 60 -240 450 1,330 1,030 730 430 130 500 1,700 1,400 1,100 800 500 550 2,070 1,770 1,470 1,170 870 600 2,440 2,140 1,840 1,540 1,2402018 Peanut Information | 15 Table 1-12. Return to Land, Overhead, and Management at Various Yields and Costs of Production for Tobacco Tobacco Yield (pounds/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $1.50/pound Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 2,400 2,700 3,000 3,300 3,600 Net Return ($/acre) 1,800 300 0 -300 -600 -900 2,200 900 600 300 0 -300 2,600 1,500 1,200 900 600 300 3,000 2,100 1,800 1,600 1,300 1,000 3,400 2,700 2,400 2,100 1,800 1,500 Tobacco Yield (pounds/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $1.80/pound Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 2,400 2,700 3,000 3,300 3,600 Net Return ($/acre) 1,800 840 540 240 -60 -360 2,200 1,560 1,260 960 660 360 2,600 2,280 1,980 1,680 1,380 1,080 3,000 3,000 2,700 2,400 2,100 1,800 3,400 3,720 3,420 3,120 2,820 2,520 Tobacco Yield (pounds/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $2.00/pound Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 2,400 2,700 3,000 3,300 3,600 Net Return ($/acre) 1,800 1,200 900 600 300 0 2,200 2,000 1,700 1,400 1,100 800 2,600 2,800 2,500 2,100 1,800 1,500 3,000 3,600 3,300 3,000 2,700 2,400 3,400 4,400 4,100 3,800 3,500 3,20016 | 2018 Peanut Information 2. PEANUT SEED David Jordan Extension Specialist—Department of Crop and Soil Sciences Bill Foote Director—North Carolina Crop Improvement Association A uniform stand of healthy, vigorous plants is essential if growers are to achieve the yields and quality needed for profitable peanut production. It is important for growers to plant high-quality seed of varieties adapted to their farm situations, management styles, and intended market uses. WHAT’S IN A BAG OF PEANUT SEED? A bag of seed peanuts contains thousands of potential plants. To grow a uniform stand of healthy plants, you need genetically pure seed that has been produced under a management system that maximizes seed health, germination, and vigor. The genetic composition of a peanut variety dictates maturity date, disease and insect resistance, peanut quality, grade, and many other characteristics. The best assurance of obtaining genetically pure seed is to purchase certified seed. Seed health is related to seedborne pathogens present on or in peanut seeds. Pathogens can reduce germination potential and can in some cases transmit peanut diseases. Professional seed producers take specific measures to reduce the level of seedborne pathogens. The extra steps they take minimize the chance for the spread of unwanted diseases. Seed lots high in germination and vigor potential will germinate more rapidly and produce more robust seedlings. These seedlings are more likely to survive moderate stress during the weeks following planting. Always purchase seed from a reputable, professional seed dealer. Bargain seed from a stranger, or even a neighbor, may not be such a bargain. Along with their seed, you could be buying weed seed or mixed varieties. You could even introduce diseases onto your farm. PEANUT SEED PRODUCTION The key component to producing high-quality peanut seed is to make the seed crop your highest farm priority. Attention to details is essential, and critical steps include the following: • field selection • seed selection2018 Peanut Information | 17 • cleaning and tuning up planting equipment • applying gypsum and boron at the right time • digging the crop when a majority of the pods are close to maturity • adjusting harvesting equipment to minimize mechanical damage • curing the peanuts slowly • storing the seeds in a cool, dry environment SAVING SEED In years when profits are low, some growers may decide that saving their own seed will help reduce production costs. Cleaning, treating, and bagging seed, however, can be expensive, and a grower may not save more than a few cents per acre. In fact, a loss may occur if the seeds they planted were of poor quality. Seed germination and vigor of saved seed can be an issue, and growers are urged to have germination tests run on saved seed immediately after harvest and again about six weeks before planting. Checking the quality of the seed early will tell the grower if the seed is worth saving. The second test will tell the grower if the seed is worth planting. Seed production is a specialized process; varietal purity, seed quality, and seed health are carefully monitored throughout the growing season and during the digging, combining, curing, cleaning, storage, and treating operations. Saving seed should not be an afterthought, but rather a process that begins well before the seed crop is planted. Growers who decide to save seed should be aware that they might be in violation of the North Carolina State Seed Law, the Plant Variety Protection Act (PVPA), and Title V of the Federal Seed Act if they sell that saved seed. According to regulations, growers may save enough seed of a PVPA-protected variety to plant back on their own holdings (land owned, leased, or rented). If the variety is protected under PVPA-Title V, a farmer may not sell any seed without the permission of the variety owner and the seed must only be sold as a Certified Class of Seed. Very few varieties currently grown in the mid-Atlantic states are not protected by PVPA-Title V. Growers who are considering selling saved seed are encouraged to consult with their department of agriculture seed sections or the North Carolina Crop Improvement Association (919-515-2851) to be sure of the variety protection level. See Table 2-1 for a list of popular Virginia market type varieties and their level of protection. North Carolina Seed Regulations require variety labeling on all peanut seed sold in the state, regardless of whether the seed is certified or farmer stock. No peanut seed can be sold as variety not stated, even if the variety is not known or the seed is a mixture of varieties.18 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 2-1. List of Varieties and Requirements for Sale Variety Can you save seed? Can you sell that saved seed? Must the saved seed be sold as a class of certified seed? Bailey Yes Only with permission Yes Bailey II Yes Only with permission Yes Brantley Yes Only with permission Yes Emery Yes Only with permission Yes CHAMPS Yes Only with permission Yes Gregory Yes Only with permission Yes Perry Yes Only with permission Yes Phillips Yes Only with permission Yes NC-V 11 Yes Only with permission Yes Sugg Yes Only with permission Yes Sullivan Yes Only with permission Yes Wynne Yes Only with permission Yes CO-OP SEED DISTRIBUTION Some growers are members of a co-op, and questions have been raised about co-op distribution of seed to growers. A farmer may bring saved seed into the co-op to be shelled, cleaned, treated, and bagged. But the entire quantity of saved seed must be returned to the farmer who produced it. The seed may not be commingled with seed from any other grower, and the seed may not be sold, traded, or given to any other grower. These actions are a violation of PVPA and the Federal Seed Act. The amount of peanuts shelled, cleaned, treated, and bagged must not exceed the amount the grower may legally save. A co-op may become a licensed seed dealer, allowing co-op members to produce their own seed as a group with seed from several growers combined and distributed among the membership. If so, steps must be taken before planting to ensure proper certification and state seed law requirements have been met. Certified seed must be grown from foundation or registered seed, fields must be inspected, and the seed must meet minimum germination standards. The co-op must be licensed under the North Carolina State Seed Law. Contact the North Carolina Crop Improvement Association (919-515-2851) for details on how to certify peanut seed and the North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services Seed Section (919-733 3930) for details about becoming a licensed seed dealer. The percentage of acres of a variety that is certified can reflect planted acreage. The percentage of certified acres for 2015, 2016, and 2017 are presented in Table 2-2.2018 Peanut Information | 19 Table 2-2. Percentage of Acres of Varieties Certified in North Carolina during 2015 , 2016, and 2017 Variety 2015 2016 2017 Bailey 64.7 47.4 40.5 Gregory 2.1 0 0.4 Sugg 9.7 1.9 0.1 Sullivan 4.8 28.7 40.2 Wynne 5.3 13.5 7.5 CHAMPS 0.4 0 0 Florida 07 1.4 1.8 0.7 FloRun 107 1.1 0.2 0 Georgia 09B 9.9 6.2 10.5 Spain 1.8 0.3 0 MAINTAINING PURITY OF HIGH OLEIC VARIETIES Releases of Virginia market types from the Virginia-Carolina region will possess the high oleic trait. This trait has been shown to improve shelf life of peanuts in general but specifically for in-shell products. Maintaining uniform expression of this trait can be influenced by management both in the field and following harvest. Digging peanuts at optimum maturity will help ensure adequate expression of the trait in commercial products. Handling and storing peanuts in a manner that prevents commingling with peanuts that do not express the high oleic fatty acid profile is essential and needs to be a focus of both seed producers and shellers. All Virginia market types grown in the Virginia-Carolina region eventually will express the high oleic trait. Runner market types grown in North Carolina and Virginia express this trait. 20 | 2018 Peanut Information 3. PEANUT PRODUCTION PRACTICES David L. Jordan Extension Specialist—Department of Crop and Soil Sciences Successful production of quality peanuts requires growers to plan an effective production and marketing program and to implement that program on a timely basis during the season. Each cultural practice and marketing decision must be effectively integrated into the total farm management plan to produce optimum profits from the whole farm. In recent years, yields have increased significantly with several records set since 2011. Several factors have contributed to high yields and include improved genetics, production of peanut on soils that are adapted to peanut production, long rotations that minimize impact of disease, availability of plant protection products for virtually all pests, and skills of farmers and their support staff who manage peanut extremely well. In North Carolina, weather conditions can have a major impact on yield, given only 15 percent of acreage is irrigated. But given good weather conditions, average yields of two tons per acre are now common in North Carolina. STAND ESTABLISHMENT Soil temperatures need to be above 65°F for germination to proceed at an acceptable rate. Large-seeded Virginia market type peanuts planted under favorable moisture and temperature conditions will show beginning radicle (root) growth in about 60 hours. If conditions are ideal, sprouting young seedlings should be visible in seven days for smaller-seeded varieties like Bailey and in 10 days for larger-seeded varieties like Wynne. Peanuts should not be planted until the soil temperature at a 4-inch depth is 65°F or above at noon for three days. Favorable weather for peanut germination should also be forecast for the next 72 hours after planting. The soil should be moist enough for rapid water absorption by the seed. The planter should firm the seedbed so there is good soil-to-seed contact. Growers should establish at least four plants per foot of row regardless of variety. This goal generally means setting the planter to deliver five seeds per foot of row. Peanuts can emerge from depths as low as 3 inches. VARIETY SELECTION Yield and quality are two major factors that influence variety selection. Growers with significant disease history may need to choose a variety with disease tolerance or resistance. Planting at least three varieties with differing maturity dates will permit efficient use of limited harvesting and curing capacities. Planting varieties with different genetic pedigrees reduces the risk of crop failure because of adverse 2018 Peanut Information | 21 weather or unexpected disease epidemics. In recent years, the variety Bailey has become the dominant variety in North Carolina because of its high yield potential and disease resistance. There is concern that heavy reliance on this variety will increase risk that is often minimized by planting a group of varieties on each farm. The selection of a variety should be based on more than one year’s data. Performance of our most popular peanut varieties from reports prepared by Dr. Maria Balota’s PVQE (Peanut Variety and Quality Evaluation) program is presented in Table 3-1. Varietal characteristics are listed in Table 3-2. Disease reaction of varieties can be found in chapter 6, “Peanut Disease Management.” Table 3-1. Percentages of FP, ELK, SMK, and Total Kernels and Pod Yield for the Major Virginia Market Type Varieties Variety % FP % ELK % SMK Total Kernels (%) Yield (lb/acre) Bailey 83 32 63 67 4,631 Bailey II 85 35 64 68 5,045 Emery 90 33 64 67 4,527 Sugg 84 32 62 66 4,341 Sullivan 85 30 62 65 4,615 Wynne 90 30 61 65 4,420*Data are from Balota et al. (PVQE Director) from eight trials during 2014 to 2016. VARIETY CHARACTERISTICS Bailey is a large-seeded Virginia market type peanut with resistance to several key peanut diseases. This variety offers tolerance to CBR, Sclerotinia blight, tomato spotted wilt, and stem rot. Seed size for Bailey is small compared with all other Virginia market types. Bailey II was released in 2017 and is the high oleic version of Bailey. Seed for this variety will not be available until after the 2020 growing season. CHAMPS is a large-seeded peanut that matures slightly earlier than other varieties. It is intermediate in resistance to tomato spotted wilt and is moderately susceptible to most other diseases. Emery is a large-seeded, high oleic variety that offers resistance to several key diseases in peanut. Vine growth is intermediate between Bailey and Sullivan. Pods and kernels for this variety are larger than those for Bailey but smaller than those for Wynne. Gregory is a large-seeded Virginia market type peanut with growth habit intermediate between bunch and runner, a pink seed coat, and a high percentage of jumbo pods and extra large kernels. It is susceptible to most diseases. Because of its large seed size, Gregory has a high calcium requirement and may show reduced seedling vigor compared with other varieties. 22 | 2018 Peanut Information Sugg is a large-seeded Virginia market type peanut with a disease management package that approaches that of Bailey. Although not as resistant to disease as Bailey, Sugg has larger pods. Sullivan is a large-seeded Virginia market type that possess the high-oleic trait and offers some resistance to some of the key diseases found in peanut in North Carolina. This variety does not have excessive vine growth like Bailey and has yielded well in many trials. Pod size is larger than Bailey but not as large as Gregory or Wynne. Wynne is a large-seeded Virginia market type possessing the high-oleic trait like Sullivan and offers some resistance to some of the key diseases. Pod size is larger than all Virginia market types except Gregory. Table 3-2. Varietal Characteristics Factors Bailey CHAMPS Gregory Emery Sugg Sullivan Wynne Growth habit (R = runner; SR = semi-runner) SR R R SR SR R SR Heat unit requirement 2,590 2,550 2,650 2,600 2,630 2,630 2,700 Comparative days to optimum maturity +2 0 +6 +4 +4 +4 +6 Seed per pound 600 535 450 535 575 575 450 Need for calcium (M = moderate; H = high) M M H H M M H Heat unit requirement = degree day accumulation (56°F base and a 95°F ceiling) required to reach optimum maturity, assuming adequate soil moisture for sustained growth and development. In comparative days to optimum maturity, – = optimum maturity for the variety occurs prior to 0; + = optimum maturity for variety occurs after 0. SELECTING AND MANAGING SOIL RESOURCES Peanuts are best adapted to well-drained, sandy loam soils, such as Norfolk, Orangeburg, and Goldsboro sandy loam soils. These soils are loose, friable, and easily tilled with a moderately deep rooting zone for easy penetration by air, water, and roots. A balanced supply of nutrients is needed. Soil pH should be in the range of 5.8 to 6.2. Peanuts grown in favorable soil conditions are healthier and more able to withstand climatic and biotic stresses. Crop Rotation A long crop rotation program is essential for efficient peanut production. The peanut plant responds to both the harmful and beneficial effects of other crops grown in 2018 Peanut Information | 23 the same field. Research shows that long rotations are best for maintaining peanut yields and quality. Benefits and potential problems associated with crops typically found within peanut-based cropping systems can be found in chapter 6, “Peanut Disease Management.” Research conducted at the Peanut Belt Research Station demonstrates the benefits of long rotations with corn and cotton. In recent years, there has been interest in crop yields, especially grains, when transitioning out of traditional peanut rotations. Results indicate that corn, cotton, soybeans, and wheat are not affected by rotation to the extent that peanuts are affected. Peanut was planted in these trials during 2013, and results indicate that the effects of rotation on peanut noted earlier are minimized when peanut is not included in the field for six years. The value of sod-based rotations on yields of peanuts and other crops has been demonstrated in the southeastern United States. In North Carolina a trial was recently completed where peanuts and other row crops were planted in either killed fescue sod or standard reduced-tillage cropping systems, including combinations of cotton and corn. During both 2010 and 2011, corn yield was higher after sod compared with combinations of traditional agronomic crops when planted several years after sod termination. Cotton yield did not differ during 2012 when compared to planting after tall fescue or agronomic crops. Peanut yield during 2013 was higher following tall fescue. In other research, peanut yield following grain sorghum was similar to that of peanut following corn or cotton. Sweet potato is a good rotation crop for peanut, while some decreases in peanut yield have been observed when peanut follows sage. Growers should plant corn, cotton, or grain sorghum for at least one year following sage before planting peanut. FERTILIZING PEANUTS Lime Peanuts grow best on soils limed to a pH of 5.8 to 6.2, provided other essential elements are in balance and available to the plant. Yields of peanuts and other crops planted in soil with four differing pH regimens are provided in Table 3-3. Dolomitic limestone is the desired liming material because it provides both calcium and magnesium. Strongly acidic soils reduce the efficient uptake and use of most nutrients and may enhance the uptake of zinc to potentially toxic levels. The efficiency of nitrogen fixation is reduced in acid soils. Molybdenum is an essential element in biological nitrogen fixation, and it can be limiting at low soil pH. Soils too high in pH are not desirable because some elements are less available to the peanut plant, and incidence of Sclerotinia blight may be greater. Manganese deficiency is often observed in fields that are overlimed. Some research has demonstrated that higher rates of calcium sulfate (gypsum or land plaster) can reduce peanut yield when soil pH in the pegging zone is relatively low (Table 3-4). These results remind us that soil pH should be maintained around 6.0 and that gypsum should be applied at rates not exceeding those currently recommended for Virginia market 24 | 2018 Peanut Information type peanuts. Increased broiler production in North Carolina and use of manure as a fertilizer source has increased concern over micronutrient toxicity. Several peanut fields have exhibited severe and yield-limiting zinc toxicities. These toxicities are increased in fields with low pH because zinc is more available at a lower pH. Maintaining soil pH around 6.0 is important in minimizing the adverse effects of zinc, and growers are cautioned not to overload fields with high levels of waste products. Micronutrient levels can build up quickly. Peanuts generally are able to tolerate zinc indices of 250. However, zinc toxicity can occur with lower index values if soil pH is low. Table 3-3. Crop Response to Soil pH Approximate Soil pH Percentage of Yield at Lower pH Values Compared with Yield at pH 5.9 Corn Cotton Peanut Soybean Wheat Grain Sorghum 4.3 26 24 55 45 41 78 4.9 76 57 62 62 72 83 5.4 99 89 83 90 100 94 5.9 100 100 100 100 100 100 Years 2 2 3 2 2 2 Table 3-4. Peanut Response to Gypsum Rate at Three Soil pH Values Relative Gypsum Rate Soil pH 5.0 5.5 6.0 0 1,920 2,720 2,900 0.5X 1,930 2,690 3,320 1.0X 2,110 2,190 3,250Data are pooled over three years. Nitrogen Roots of peanuts can be infected by bradyrhizobia bacteria. Nodules form on the roots at the infection sites. Within these nodules, the bacteria can convert atmospheric nitrogen into a nitrogen form that can be used by plants through a process called biological nitrogen fixation. This symbiotic relationship provides sufficient nitrogen for peanut production if the roots are properly nodulated. Growers should inoculate their peanut seed or fields to ensure that adequate levels of bradyrhizobia are present in each field. The data in Table 3-5 are from multiple locations and years and give an indication of the possible response of peanuts to inoculant applied as a liquid or granular in the seed furrow. These data demonstrate that while peanut response to rotation is often predictable, response to inoculant and rotation combinations is less predictable. Therefore, peanuts should be inoculated in all years regardless of previous rotation history to minimize risk and maintain yield. The economic value of inoculation is also demonstrated in these trials 2018 Peanut Information | 25 (Table 3-5). Assuming a commercial inoculant cost of $8 per acre, economic return in new peanut fields at $535 per ton was 51 times higher than the cost of the inoculant. A five-fold increase in economic return over inoculant cost was noted in fields with a recent history of peanut production. Generally, a peanut plant with 15 nodules on the tap root by 40 days after emergence has adequate nodulation. Oftentimes foliar symptoms of nitrogen deficiency will be apparent by this time if nodulation is not effective. Later in the season the plant will need many more nodules, more than 100, for optimum growth, development, and yield. If fewer than 15 nodules are noted 40 days after emergence, especially if peanut foliage is yellow, growers should consider application of ammonium sulfate. Table 3-5. Peanut Yield Response and Economic Return at a Price of $535 per ton in Fields without a History of Peanuts versus Fields with Frequent Plantings of Peanuts (1999 – 2016) Inoculant Use New Peanut Fields Fields with a Recent History of Peanuts Yield (lb per acre) Economic return ($ per acre) Yield (lb per acre) Economic return ($ per acre) No inoculant 3,571 39 4,282 229 Inoculant 5,133 449 4,475 273 Difference 1,562 410 193 44 Number of Trials 39 39 36 36 Years 1999 – 2016 1999 – 2016 Commercial inoculants can be added to the seed or put into the furrow with the seed at planting. In-furrow inoculants are available in either granular or liquid form. When inoculants are applied directly in the seed furrow, either as a spray or granular, it is essential that the product reach the bottom of the seed furrow so that infection occurs as the root system develops. Some growers have had difficulty in obtaining nodulation because soil moved in the seed furrow after seed drop but before inoculant spray or granules entered the seed furrow. Delivering granular or in-furrow sprays above seed placement also will compromise effectiveness of systemic insecticides and fungicides. In addition, shallow planting along with in-furrow spray inoculants have performed poorly under hot and dry soil conditions. Peanuts are capable of emerging from depths of at least 3 inches; therefore, it is advisable to plant deep to protect sprayed inoculant from breakdown caused by high temperatures. Direct applications of nitrogen to peanuts are not generally needed. However, application of nitrogen fertilizers can increase yield, but only when peanuts are not nodulating and nitrogen deficiency is obvious. Research indicates that 90 to 120 pounds actual nitrogen per acre as a single application may be needed to obtain yields similar to adequately 26 | 2018 Peanut Information nodulating peanuts when a true nitrogen deficiency exists. Economic return on investment of inoculant and various rates of ammonium sulfate are also compared in Table 3-6 at a peanut price of $560/ton and fertilizer cost of $0.29/pound ammonium sulfate. While a rate of 90 pounds of nitrogen is the most economically effective, in some trials 120 pounds of nitrogen were needed when late-season rainfall was excessive. Lower rates also may be effective but perform inconsistently. Research also suggests that ammonium sulfate is a more effective source than ammonium nitrate. Split applications may be more efficient than a single application. Best results are obtained when applications are made early in the season. Peanuts grown on deep, sandy soils often respond to nitrogen fertilization and may lap middles more quickly, even when inoculation is adequate. Rapid canopy closure results in cooler soil temperatures in the pegging zone. When soils have high temperatures, pegs cannot survive. Table 3-6. Peanut Response to Inoculation and Ammonium Sulfate at 571 lb/acre (120 lb actual N/acre) Applied when Nitrogen Deficiency Is First Visible. Inoculant Ammonium Sulfate Pod Yield (lb/acre) Net Return ($/acre) No No 3,530 c 20 c Yes No 4,850 a 353 a No Yes 4,550 b 271 b Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at p < 0.05. Potassium and Phosphorus The most efficient and easiest way to apply potassium is to apply it to the crop preceding peanuts. This practice usually increases the yield of the preceding crop and allows the potassium to leach into the area where the peanut root system obtains most of its nutrients. However, if NC Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services soil test recommendations indicate that potassium and phosphorus are needed, then the appropriate levels of these nutrients should be applied. Many growers and researchers feel that high levels of soil potassium in the fruiting zone (the upper 2 or 3 inches of soil) result in more pod rot and interfere with the uptake of calcium by pegs and pods, which results in a higher percentage of “pops” and calcium deficiency in the seeds. If the potassium level is high in the fruiting zone, a higher rate of gypsum may be needed. Most of the peanut soils in North Carolina have adequate levels of phosphorus for good peanut production. Once a medium or higher level of phosphorus is achieved, it remains quite stable over a number of years. The addition of phosphorus-containing fertilizer to peanuts is generally not needed if it is applied to other crops in the rotation. However, soil testing is the only way to be sure.2018 Peanut Information | 27 Calcium Perhaps the most critical element in the production of large-seeded Virginia market type peanuts is calcium. Lack of calcium uptake by peanuts causes “pops” and is often reflected as darkened plumules in the seed. Seeds with dark plumules usually fail to germinate. Calcium must be available for both vegetative growth and pod growth. Calcium moves upward in the peanut plant but does not move downward. Thus, calcium does not move to the peg and pod and developing kernels. The peg and developing pod absorb calcium directly from soil, so it must be readily available in the soil. Adequate soil calcium is usually available for good plant growth but not for pod development for good quality peanuts. It is important to provide calcium in the fruiting zone through gypsum applications. Gypsum should be applied to all Virginia market types, regardless of the soil characteristics or soil nutrient levels. The calcium supplied through gypsum application is relatively water soluble (compared to other calcium sources) and more readily available for uptake by peanut pegs and pods. Each pod must absorb adequate calcium to develop normally. Gypsum product materials vary in elemental calcium content. Studies show that all forms of gypsum effectively supply needed calcium when used at rates that provide equivalent calcium levels uniformly in the fruiting zone. General recommendations for application rates are given in Table 3-7. Table 3-7. Gypsum Sources and Application Rates Source % CaSO4* Application Rate (lb/acre) Band (16-18 in) Broadcast USG Ben Franklin 85 600 — USG 420 Granular 83 — 1,215 USG 500 70 — 1,300 Super Gyp 85 85 — 1,200 TG Phosphogypsum 50 — 2,000 Agri Gypsum 60 — 1,800 Gyp Soil 85 — 1,200 *Guaranteed analysis percentage in registration with North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. The use of gypsum on large-seeded peanuts is very effective in improving peanut seed quality and grades. Some research data indicate that high rates of gypsum may control or reduce the pod rot disease complex. Gypsum should not be broadcast before land preparation or before planting because too much rain may leach the calcium below the fruiting zone.28 | 2018 Peanut Information Best results are obtained when gypsum is applied in late June or early July. The availability of calcium supplied by gypsum application is also influenced by the amount of rainfall. Moisture is needed to make gypsum soluble and calcium available to the peanut fruit. In unusually dry years, peanuts may show symptoms of calcium deficiency, even when recommended rates of gypsum are applied. Increasingly, there are questions concerning the need to apply gypsum as supplemental calcium to peanuts. Sometimes peanuts do not respond to supplemental calcium. Sometimes peanuts respond well to half the amount given in Table 3-7. The interactions of environmental conditions, seed size, soil series, native fertility, and soil moisture are unpredictable. However, for a consistent response over a wide range of soil characteristics and weather conditions, the full rate of gypsum is recommended for Virginia market types. Growers are encouraged to evaluate peanut response to gypsum on their own farms before leaving off this input or reducing rates below those presented in Table 3-7. Data from twelve trials (Table 3-8) indicate that gypsum at rates below those recommended in Table 3-7 can, in some cases, be effective. Table 3-8. Pod Yield Following Application of Gypsum at 0.5 and 1 Times (X) the Recommended Use Rate for Virginia Market Types. Pod Yield (lb/acre) No. of Trials Pod Yield (lb/acre) No Gypsum 0.5X Gypsum 1.0X Gypsum Actual yield 12 3,970 4,510 4,590 Increase in yield over no-gypsum control — — 540 620 In some years, for example 2013, excessive rainfall occurred during June and July after gypsum had been applied. If rainfall exceeding 5 inches occurs over a short period of time within a few weeks after gypsum is applied, growers should consider applying a rate of 0.5 times the normal use rate to make sure sufficient calcium is in soil during the entire period of reproductive growth. Likewise, if growers cannot get into fields to apply gypsum on time due to wet soils, gypsum still needs to be applied even if application is delayed until early to mid-August. While liquid calcium products are available, they are not a substitute for gypsum. There is also a question of whether or not the gypsum rate needs to be increased for extremely large-seeded Virginia market type varieties, such as Gregory. Results from 2001 to 2005 at two locations, during each year, indicated that a rate of gypsum 1.5 times the recommended rate did not increase pod yield over the normal use rate in most experiments. While the data did indicate that the large-seeded variety Gregory was more responsive to gypsum than the much smaller-seeded variety NC-V 11, there was no advantage to applying gypsum at rates exceeding those rates listed in Table 3-7.2018 Peanut Information | 29 In recent years, runner market type varieties referred to as “jumbo runners” have become more popular. These varieties, such as Georgia 06G, will require supplemental calcium compared to the smaller-seeded runners like Georgia Green. Growers should apply at least half the rate recommended for Virginia market types (Table 3-7). Manganese and Boron Two other elements often found to be deficient in peanuts are manganese and boron. Manganese deficiency usually occurs when soil is overlimed. Increasing the soil pH reduces the plant’s uptake of manganese. The symptom of manganese deficiency is interveinal chlorosis. This symptom can be confused with carryover of atrazine (from corn) or Cotoran/Meturon (from cotton). A deficiency can be corrected by a foliar application of manganese sulfate. The usual practice is to apply 3.5 to 4 pounds per acre of dry material when the deficiency is observed. Boron plays an important role in kernel quality and flavor. Boron deficiency may occur in peanuts produced on deep, sandy soils. Deficient kernels are referred to as having “hollow hearts.” The inner surfaces of the cotyledons are depressed and darkened, so they are graded as damaged kernels. A general recommendation is to apply 0.5 pound of actual boron per acre as a foliar spray in early July. Several formulations of boron are available. Some growers apply boron with their preplant incorporated herbicides, and others have boron added to their fertilizers. Growers are advised to make sure boron and manganese sources provide sufficient elemental boron. Several liquid boron and manganese formulations are available. Although liquid sources are more convenient to use than some dry products, some of the liquid products contain only a fraction of the needed boron or manganese. The amount of formulated product needed to supply 0.5 pound elemental boron per acre is provided in Table 3-9. Similarly, the amount of formulated manganese product needed to supply 1.0 pound of manganese per acre or two applications of 0.5 pounds of manganese spaced 10 to 14 days apart is provided in Table 3-10. Lower rates of boron or manganese are often applied for “maintenance.” Growers should make sure the product they purchase supplies the amount of boron or manganese the plant needs. Table 3-9. Amount of Formulated Product Needed to Provide Equivalent Amounts of Elemental Boron per Acre Source Amount Needed to Supply 0.5 lb Boron per Acre Boric acid 3.0 lb Disodium octaborate (Solubor, 17.5% boron) 2.8 lb Liquid (9.0% boron) 2.2 qt30 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 3-10. Amount of Formulated Manganese Products Needed to Provide Equivalent Amounts of Elemental Manganese per Acre Source Amount Needed to Supply 1.0 lb Manganese per Acre Manganese sulfate (Techmangum, 27% manganese) 3.7 lb Manganese sulfate (8% manganese) 1.2 gal The percentage of element (in this case, manganese or boron) or the weight of the element per unit volume of product can be used to determine the amount of liquid product needed to correct a nutrient deficiency. For example, if 1 pound of manganese is needed per acre, the following formulas can be used to determine the amount of 8 percent water-soluble manganese product needed per acre. Step 1. Figure the weight of manganese per gallon by multiplying the percentage of manganese in product in pounds by the weight of product in pounds per gallon: % manganese in product × lb product per gal = lb manganese per gal Step 2. Figure the gallons of manganese product per acre by dividing the desired amount of manganese in pounds per acre by the weight of the manganese per gallon: desired lb manganese per acre = gal manganese product per acre lb manganese per gal Example: Step 1. 0.08 × 10.5 lb manganese sulfate per gal = 0.84 lb manganese sulfate per gal Step 2. 1 lb manganese per acre desired = 1.2 gal 8% manganese product per acre 0.84 lb manganese per gal LAND PREPARATION Historically, peanut growers have planted into conventionally prepared seedbeds to obtain a smooth, uniform, residue-free seedbed for planting. The effectiveness of burial of old crop residue and weed seed in the long-term suppression of soilborne diseases and short-term suppression of some weed problems was noted when the moldboard plow was used. However, only 7 percent of acres were treated this way, based on a 2009 survey in North Carolina (Table 3-11), in part because newer plant protection products are very effective. There is also a growing trend toward reduced-tillage crop production in North Carolina, and some growers are successfully using these practices for peanut. There has also been a significant decrease in the 2018 Peanut Information | 31 number of growers using moldboard plowing. Changes in tillage systems over the past decade are presented in Table 3-11. Table 3-11. Percentage of Farmers Using Certain Tillage Practices on at Least a Portion of Their Farms Tillage 1998 2004 2009 2014 Disk 90 78 71 75 Chisel 25 23 27 12 Moldboard plow 58 17 7 5 Field cultivate 75 55 42 44 Rip and bed 49 39 40 55 Bed 44 35 32 25 Reduced tillage 10 23 41 20 There is concern about stratification of nutrients in reduced-tillage systems. For example, repeated applications of potassium in reduced-tillage cotton may result in excessive amounts of this nutrient in the pegging zone when peanuts are planted in a reduced-tillage system. Growers are encouraged to test soils for excessive potassium levels and incorporate this nutrient with tillage, if needed. Many peanut growers bed their peanut fields either in the fall or the spring. Many growers prefer planting on raised beds rather than flat planting. The beds often give faster germination and early growth, provide drainage, and may reduce pod losses during digging. While reduced-tillage systems can be as successful as conventional-tillage systems, reduced-tillage systems often have less consistent yields than conventional-tillage systems. However, most peanut production has shifted to sandy soils that respond more favorably to reduced-tillage systems. A summary of peanut response to tillage is presented in Table 3-12. Table 3-12. Peanut Yield Response to Tillage Practices in North Carolina, 1999 to 2013. A positive value indicates that yield of peanut in conventional tillage exceeded yield of peanut in reduced tillage. No. of Trials Years Actual Yield Difference (lb/acre) Yield Difference (%) Range of Yield Difference (%) 65 1997 – 2013 +132 +3.4 -16.1 to +27.5 Because of concern about digging losses on finer-textured soils, it is recommended that beds be established in the fall with a grass cover crop with peanuts strip-tilled into previously prepared beds. Research during 2005 and 2006 demonstrated that wheat, cereal (cover crop), rye, oats, and triticale can serve equally well as wheat when used as a cover crop grown the winter and spring prior to planting peanuts. A risk advisory index has been developed to assist growers in deciding the risk of 32 | 2018 Peanut Information peanut yield in reduced-tillage systems being lower than yield in conventional-tillage systems (Table 3-13). Research also suggests that prior cropping history generally does not affect peanut response to tillage. However, peanuts are often more responsive to tillage systems, primarily because of the digging requirement. The risk advisory index has been modified from the initial version. A positive value indicates that yield was higher in conventional tillage than in reduced tillage. Table 3-13. Advisory Index for Determining the Risk of Peanut Yield in Reduced-Tillage Systems Being Lower Than Yield in Conventional-Tillage Systems Soil series Roanoke and Craven…40 points Goldsboro and Lynchburg…20 points Norfolk…10 points Conetoe and Wanda…0 points Pod loss on finer-textured soils, such as those on the Roanoke and Craven series, is often greater than on coarser-textured soils, such as Conetoe and Wanda series, regardless of tillage system. Difficulty in digging can increase when these soils become hard in the fall if rainfall is limited. Soil series Your score: Tillage intensity No tillage into flat ground…35 points Strip tillage into flat ground…10 points Strip tillage into stale seedbeds…0 points Peanut response to reduced-tillage systems is invariably correlated with the degree of tillage. Efficient digging can be difficult when peanuts are planted in flat ground in reduced-tillage systems. Although fields may appear to be flat and uniformly level, often fields are more rugged than they appear, and setting up the digger to match unforeseen contours in the field can be difficult. Strip tillage into flat ground is a better alternative than no tillage into flat ground, although digging peanuts planted on flat ground can be more challenging regardless of the tillage system. Strip tillage into preformed beds often results in yields approaching those of conventional tillage. Tillage intensity Your score: Risk of yield being lower in reduced tillage than in conventional tillage: 35 or Less—Low Risk 40 to 50—Moderate Risk 55 or more—High risk Total index value Your score: 2018 Peanut Information | 33 PLANTING Varieties grown in North Carolina can require as many as 160 days for full pod maturity, depending upon soil moisture and temperature. Along with yield and market grades, planting date can affect disease and insect development (see chapters 5 and 6). Less damage from thrips and lower incidence of tomato spotted wilt virus have been associated with later plantings. Peanut yields are often the highest when peanuts are planted in mid-May. However, in some years peanuts planted later can yield quite well. Conditions in the fall, especially night temperatures, can have a great impact on yield when they prevent peanut pods from reaching optimum maturity. Data for the variety Bailey during 2013 to 2017 exposed to three planting dates when peanut was dug at optimum maturity based on pod mesocarp color are provided in Table 3-14. Yield differences among planting dates were noted in all years. In most years planting in mid-May resulted in the highest yields. When peanut was planted in mid-June following wheat, yield was substantially lower compared with planting in May (Table 3-15). Table 3-14. Yield (lb/acre) of the Variety Bailey as Influenced by Planting Dates at Lewiston-Woodville from 2013 to 2017 Planting Date 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 May 3 – 4 4,955 5,114 4,816 3,848 5,868 May 16 – 19 6,123 4,524 6,337 5,009 5,417 May 28 6,352 3,898 4,001 4,481 5,198 Table 3-15. Yield (lb/acre) of the Variety Bailey Planted in Early and Late May and Following Wheat Harvest in Mid-June at Lewiston-Woodville from 2013 to 2017. Planting Date 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 May 2 3,340 3,660 5,590 3,640 4,173 May 22 3,470 3,690 3,840 5,016 6,312 June 20 3,070 2,930 2,030 3,045 3,273 Seeding Rates and Twin Rows Table 3-16 provides the conversion of seed per foot of row to pounds per acre in order to establish the desired plant population for a given variety. Germination percentage is not considered in this conversion, but it should be considered when planning planting.34 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 3-16. Approximate Pounds of Peanut Seed Required per Acre to Provide 3, 4, and 5 Seeds per Foot of Row on 36-Inch Rows Variety Seed/lb Pounds per Acre (36-inch rows) 3 Seeds/ft 4 Seeds/ft 5 Seeds/ft Bailey 600 72 95 120 CHAMPS 535 76 102 135 Emery 535 76 102 135 Gregory 450 97 129 161 Sugg 575 76 101 126 Florida 07* 650 64 87 110 Georgia 06G* 650 64 87 110 Sullivan 575 76 101 126 Wynne 500 87 116 145 *Denotes runner market types. All other varieties are Virginia market types. Table 3-17. Relationship Between In-row Plant Density (Seed per Linear Foot of Row) and Total Number of Seed per Acre on 30-inch and 36-inch Rows. Seed per Linear Foot 30 inch rows 36-inch rows 4 69,696 58,080 5 87,120 72,150 6 104,544 87,126 In the Southeast, less tomato spotted wilt virus has been associated with twin row plantings than with single rows. Similar results have been observed in North Carolina. Higher plant populations and closer row spacings often result in fewer symptoms of virus. Pod yield of peanut in twin rows was higher than yield of single rows by 235 pounds per acre (Table 3-18). Seeding peanuts in narrow rows or at extremely high seeding rates has not increased yield over twin row plantings that establish a plant population of five plants per foot of row (sum of both twin rows). Although higher seeding rates are needed, and higher rates of in-furrow insecticide and inoculant are required, twin rows tend to produce a greater taproot crop rather than a limb crop. This tendency can improve uniformity of harvested peanuts, and in a dry season when peanut vines do not lap, this can result in higher yields. One of the detriments of twin row plantings, especially with the higher plant populations, is excessive vine growth, which can make digging more difficult. Table 3-18. Peanut Yield Response to Twin Row Planting Planting Pattern Pod Yield (pounds/acre) Single Rows 3,760 Twin Rows 3,995 Difference 235 Number of Trials 202018 Peanut Information | 35 IRRIGATION Having adequate water available throughout the peanut life cycle is important for optimal plant growth and development. Drought or flood can have tremendously negative impacts on peanut yields and quality. Likewise, pest infestation and severity of damage from these pests is influenced by available water, either in the form of rainfall or irrigation. Understanding how environmental conditions, and in particular irrigation, affect pest complexes is important in developing appropriate management strategies. Although less than 20 percent of North Carolina peanut acreage is irrigated, irrigation is a powerful production tool. Irrigation minimizes risk and enhances consistency of yield. In addition, irrigation improves consistency of pesticide performance and in many ways the predictability of pest complexes. The major production and pest management practices employed in North Carolina peanut production are listed in Table 3-19, with brief comments on how irrigation or ample rainfall affects efforts to manage pests or supply peanuts with adequate nutrition. Research supported by the North Carolina Peanut Growers Association has been conducted to determine the feasibility of subsurface drip irrigation. While there are many logistical issues associated with this approach, data collected at Lewiston-Woodville in corn, cotton, and peanut indicate that this approach to irrigation is feasible. As expected, corn yield was affected more than cotton or peanut yield by irrigation. Peanut yield was maintained more effectively than cotton in dry years without irrigation. These data give a good indication of yield under growing conditions where water is not limiting relative to dry-land production for these crops. DETERMINING MATURITY Maturity affects flavor, grade, milling quality, and shelf life. Not only do mature peanuts have the quality characteristics that the consumer desires; they are also worth more to the producer. However, the indeterminate fruiting pattern of peanuts makes it difficult to determine when optimum maturity occurs. The fruiting pattern can vary considerably from year to year, mostly because of the weather. Therefore, each field should be checked before digging begins. The hull-scrape method, currently the most objective method, requires the use of a peanut profile board that is available at county Extension centers. The peanut profile board in Figure 3-1 was developed for runner market types grown in the southeastern United States. A version of the peanut profile board was developed for Virginia market types grown in the Virginia-Carolina region (Figure 3-2). It is important to follow a specific maturity prediction method to achieve maximum dollar value for peanuts. Also, expression of the high oleic trait is lower in immature kernels compared to kernels that are older and more fully developed. To ensure the benefits and uniformity of high oleic expression in the cultivars Sullivan and Wynne, digging peanut as close to optimum maturity is advised.36 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 3-19. Impact of Irrigation on Production and Pest Management Strategies Production or Pest Management Practice Benefits of Irrigation or Optimum Rainfall Land preparation Helps in establishment of seedbeds, either conventional or reduced tillage. Seed germination Ensures germination of seed when existing soil moisture is marginal for complete stand establishment. Weed management Irrigation or adequate rainfall activates preemergence herbicides and minimizes plant stress. Less moisture stress often enhances control by postemergence herbicides and enables peanut to recover more rapidly from herbicide damage. Insect management Important for activation of in-furrow insecticides. Improves plant growth and root establishment, which is important in absorption of in-furrow insecticides. Improves peanut recovery from early season insect damage and insecticide phytotoxicity. Increases likelihood of southern corn rootworm survival and subsequent damage to pods but can protect against damage from lesser cornstalk borer. Minimizes potential damage from corn earworms and armyworms by establishment of a dense canopy that can withstand damage from feeding. Reduces the likelihood of spider mite damage by keeping spider mite populations low. Disease management Wet conditions early in the season can favor infection of peanut by CBR, but can minimize potential for crown rot. Irrigation increases likelihood of having a favorable microclimate for development of foliar and soilborne disease. A dense canopy that is supplemented by irrigation increases humidity within the canopy and minimizes airflow, all of which favor pathogen and disease development. Symptoms associated with tomato spotted wilt of peanut are often more pronounced when peanuts are growing under dry and especially hot conditions. Timely irrigation will reduce plant stress and possibly enable plants to withstand tomato spotted wilt more effectively than nonirrigated, water-stressed plants. Pod maturation Irrigation buffers against extremes in moisture and reduces stress (heat and drought), which allows normal flower production and kernel development. Maturation is more predictable and generally earlier. Limited rainfall during reproductive growth often causes delays in maturation and establishment of “multiple crops” or “split crops” on the same plant. Sufficient rainfall is critical for complete kernel development and pod fill. Limited soil moisture during flowering can reduce pegging. Irrigation modeling programs often include soil temperature as a trigger for irrigation during pegging. Supplemental calcium Kernels need adequate calcium to become mature and completely developed. Irrigation buffers against drought, which reduces calcium concentration in soil water and mass flow movement into developing pegs. Digging Ability to supply soil water to improve digging conditions (reduces hardness of soil), improves digging efficiency, and minimizes pod loss during the digging process.2018 Peanut Information | 37 Heat units, or growing degree days (DD), can be a means of determining maturity. One growing degree day (base 56°F) accumulates when the average daily high and low temperature is 57°F. If the average daily high and low temperatures were 76°F, then 20 growing degree days accumulate for that day. Research has shown that 2,520 to 2,770 growing degree days are needed for Virginia market types to mature if soil moisture is not limiting. Variation in heat unit accumulation for 2009 to 2015 is presented in Table 3-20. Pod maturation generally ceases in the fall when night temperatures are in the mid- to high 40s for two nights in a row. Even though day temperatures may increase considerably, the plant seldom recovers from these cooler night temperatures. In 2011 at Lewiston-Woodville, low temperatures ranged from 44°F to 47°F from October 1 to 4 and essentially eliminated any further maturation of pods. During 2012 at this location, daily lows of 46°F were noted on two consecutive days (September 24 and 25). Temperature was between 42°F and 45°F on four consecutive days from October 11 to October 14, 2012. However, during 2012, temperature and heat units in early October increased considerably compared with other years, allowing peanut to continue maturing. Table 3-20. Average Heat Unit Accumulation per Day (DD56) from May 16 through November 1 at Lewiston-Woodville for Various Categories Time period Average for the Interval Described 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Ave. May 16–Jun. 15 17.8 19.1 20.7 15.4 17.6 15.9 19.5 16.4 17.8 17.8 Jun. 16–Jul. 15 20.1 24.5 25.2 23.0 21.2 22.5 25.5 21.7 23.6 23.0 Jul. 16–Aug. 15 22.9 26.3 28.0 24.8 22.4 18.9 23.5 25.6 21.3 23.7 Aug. 16–Sep. 15 18.5 20.9 21.3 20.2 20.9 20.0 23.5 21.9 17.8 20.6 Sep. 16–Oct. 15 11.9 14.4 11.1 20.3 10.6 11.1 12.8 13.9 16.0 13.6 Oct. 16–Nov. 1 7.1 9.3 1.3 4.5 3.8 2.9 2.8 7.3 3.4 4.7 Pod yields from 2012 to 2014 for the variety Bailey are presented over six digging dates starting in early September and occurring on intervals of approximately one week (Figure 3-3). While yields increased as digging was delayed during 2012 and 2013 well into October, a more typical yield curve for digging trials was observed in 2014. Many peanut fields had a very “tight” maturity profile during 2014 compared with previous years. Although this characteristic can increase yield and market grades, if digging is delayed past the optimum window, yield can decrease more rapidly. A typical response of peanut to digging date can also be seen for the variety Gregory and includes both yield and key market grade factors (Figure 3-4). Research during 2016 compared yield of Bailey, Wynne, and Sullivan planted in mid-May and dug September 8, 16, and 29 and October 14. Maturity of these varieties varied little when comparing pod mesocarp color, and there was no interaction of variety and digging date. When averaged over varieties, delaying digging from September 8 to September 16 resulted in a yield increase from 4,166 pounds per acre to 5,037 38 | 2018 Peanut Information Figure 3-1. The traditional profile board shown below was developed for runner market type production in the southeastern United States. Figure 3-2. The peanut profile board shown below was developed for Virginia market types.2018 Peanut Information | 39 pounds per acre. Yield varied only slightly (5,037 versus 4,967 pounds per acre) when delaying digging from September 16 to September 29. However, when dug on October 14, yield decreased by 1,037 pounds per acre compared with yield on September 29. This amount of yield loss was not uncommon in some areas of North Carolina following Hurricane Matthew. This weather event occurred when maturity of peanut in many fields was slightly past the optimum digging date. The additional delay of one more week resulted in shed of many of the mature pods during digging. Although market grade characteristics often remain high when peanuts are dug later in the fall, yield is often lower due to pod shed. A balance between digging too soon and digging before frost or inclement weather needs to be reached to maximize yield and quality. At harvest, growers should follow the weather forecast closely and not dig peanuts when freezing temperatures are expected. It is also important to have adequate harvesting and curing equipment so that the peanut crop can be handled within a reasonable period of time. At least three days, and in many cases more than three days, are needed between the time of digging and frost to allow sufficient drying to prevent freeze damage. Digging and harvest capacity for growers are important to consider. The speed at which growers can plant peanuts is not the same as the time and labor it takes to dig, combine, dry, and haul peanuts. Most crops require a one-step process to harvest, while peanuts require two stages. Soil conditions during digging must be ideal to effectively remove peanuts from the soil and invert vines. Growers need to realistically determine the amount of time these operations will require. With respect to digging, it is estimated that with four-row equipment and six-row equipment, 30 and 40 acres can be dug per day if growers dig for 10 hours a day driving at 3 mph with no interruptions. A six-row self-propelled combine can harvest 20 acres in a day driving at 1.5 mph, while four-row and six-row pull-type combines can harvest 15 to 20 acres in a day, respectively. Weather conditions can have a tremendous impact on the number of hours peanut can be dug and combined in a given day, and the estimates provided here relative to time represent a best-case scenario. As stated previously, both planting and digging date can have an impact on peanut yield and quality. Disease can have an impact on peanut response to digging date. Results with Dr. Barbara Shew from research conducted with the variety Gregory over six years demonstrate the value of digging peanut at optimum maturity (October 15) and controlling foliar disease (five-spray fungicide program) (Table 3-21). Yield increased by 400 to 550 lb/acre over the three digging intervals (September 20 to October 15).40 | 2018 Peanut Information 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 128 135 146 153 160 Yield ELK TSMK Digging Date (days after planting) Percent of Maximum Yield Figure 3-4. Pod yield (lb/acre) and percentages of extra large kernels (ELK) and total sound mature kernels (TSMK) for the variety Gregory to digging date. Data are from 18 trials during 2003 – 2013. Figure 3-3. Response of the variety Bailey to digging date. Peanut was planted approximately May 3 during 2012, 2013, and 2014. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10-Sep 17-Sep 24-Sep 1-Oct 8-Oct 15-Oct 2012 2013 2014 Digging Date Percent of Maximum Yield 2018 Peanut Information | 41 Digging very early resulted in lower yields even when disease was controlled. The balance between pod loss from disease and immature peanut resulted in no difference in yield across digging dates. See chapter 6 for more information on disease management in peanuts. Table 3-21. Percent Canopy Defoliation, Pod Yield, and Percentage of Extra Large Kernels for the Variety Gregory as Influenced by the Interaction of Digging Date and Fungicide Digging date Fungicide program None 2 sprays 5 sprays Canopy defoliation (%) September 20 22 c 9 d 3 e October 5 38 b 15 d 3 e October 15 57 a 41 b 4 e Pod yield (pounds/acre) September 20 3200 de 3,280 cd 3,540 bc October 5 3230 d 3,290 cd 3,680 ab October 15 2930 e 3,330 cd 3,880 a Extra large kernels (%) September 20 48 f 48 f 50 e October 5 51 d 50 e 53 b October 15 52 c 52 c 54 a Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different, according to Fisher’s Protected LSD test at p < 0.05. Data are pooled over six experiments. Adequate control of thrips continues to be very important to optimize yield in North Carolina. A trial was conducted from 2013 through 2016 with the variety Bailey to determine the influence of planting date on thrips control and peanut yield with combinations of Thimet applied in the seed furrow and acephate applied two weeks after peanut emergence. While several interactions were noted, the value of adequate thrips control is summarized in Table 3-22. Although both Thimet and acephate protected yield, the combination of both insecticides provided the greatest protection of yield. Thrips pressure was high during 2013 at this location during all of May and well into June. During 2014, results were slightly different than in 2013. The value of acephate was less pronounced in 2014, with the in-furrow treatment the most effective approach. Thrips injury was higher in 2013 than 2014 and most likely contributed to the minor impact of acephate on yield. Peanut did not respond to insecticide during 2015. While this fact was surprising, in some years peanuts are able to recover quickly from thrips feeding and yield is not reduced. In 2016, either Thimet or acephate increased yield about the same with the combination of both insecticides increasing yield only slight more than either product alone.42 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 3-22. Interactions of Thimet and Acephate Spray Programs at Lewiston-Woodville during 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016 Insecticide 2013 2014 2015 2016 In-furrow Post- emergence Thrips Damage (Scale 0-5) Pod Yield in lb/acre (yield increase over nontreated control) Thrips Damage (Scale 0 – 5) Pod Yield in lb/acre (yield increase over nontreated control) Thrips Damage (Scale 0 – 5) Pod Yield in lb/acre (yield increase over nontreated control) Thrips Damage (Scale 0 – 5) Pod Yield in lb/acre (yield increase over nontreated control) No Thimet No acephate 3.3 5,232 2.3 4,741 2.6 5,238 2.4 4,823 Thimet No acephate 1.1 5,651 (384) 0.7 4,982 (241) 0.8 5,246 (8) 0.7 5,074 (251) No Thimet acepthate 1.7 5,642 (278) 1.0 4,780 (39) 1.0 5,295 (49) 1.1 5,015 (192) Thimet acephate 0.5 5,878 (645) 0.4 4,972 (231) 0.3 5,278 (40) 0.3 5,115 (292) Data are pooled over planting dates.2018 Peanut Information | 43 Thrips damage is generally more severe with early plantings in North Carolina due to cooler weather early in the season, which slows peanut growth and allows thrips damage to have a greater impact on plant recovery. Thrips populations can be lower when peanuts emerge from later plantings. In a second trial involving planting dates at this location, the value of treating seed with fungicide was apparent relative to peanut yield at all three planting dates (Table 3-23). Yield was most likely lower due to poorer stands and less seedling vigor when seed was not treated with fungicide. Soil was cold and damp during early and mid-May. The lower stands and yields when planting during that period of time were clearly demonstrated when seed without a fungicide treatment were planted. Drs. Brandenburg and Shew will have more information on thrips management and seedling disease management in their respective chapters. Table 3-23. Influence of Planting Date and Fungicide Seed Treatment on Peanut Stand and Pod Yield at Lewiston-Woodville during 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016. Data are pooled over insecticide treatments. Planting Date Peanut Stand (Plants/20 ft of row) Pod yield (lb/acre) Fungicide Seed Treatment Fungicide Seed Treatment No Yes No Yes 2013 May 4 56 80 2,597 4,544 May 16 55 72 4,736 5,420 May 28 71 86 5,273 6,001 2014 May 4 21 52 3,937 4,860 May 19 36 56 4,148 4,476 May 28 17 48 3,022 4,187 2015 May 4 45 95 4,024 4,535 May 19 73 102 5,703 5,803 May 28 75 83 4,912 5,503 2016 May 2 3 77 680 4,735 May 19 3 67 1,336 5,723 May 28 66 80 4,334 4,83344 | 2018 Peanut Information RUNNER MARKET TYPES There is some demand for runner market type peanut production in North Carolina. Part of this interest is related to market demand and sheller operations in the region. Runner production is also appealing to some growers because of potential savings in production of runners compared with Virginia market type peanuts (approximately 110 pounds of seed for runners versus 125 to 160 pounds of seed for Virginia market types and lower requirements for supplemental calcium by runner market types). Yield of runner market types often perform as well as the Virginia types. CULTURAL PRACTICES AND TOMATO SPOTTED WILT VIRUS Tomato spotted wilt virus can be a problem in North Carolina, with no control practices available after peanuts have been planted. Planting peanuts in reduced-tillage systems (no till or strip till), seeding peanuts at higher rates (establishing four or more plants per row foot in single rows), planting twin rows, applying Thimet or Phorate in furrow, delaying planting until mid-May, planting tolerant varieties, and maintaining good soil fertility can lessen the impact of tomato spotted wilt on peanut growth and yield. However, each of these cultural practices presents a range of risks and benefits. A tomato spotted wilt virus advisory is provided in chapter 5. PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS Apogee and Kudos (prohexadione calcium) are registered for use in peanuts. Research has demonstrated that prohexadione calcium improves row definition, which can lead to increased efficiency in the digging and inversion process. Prohexadione calcium should be applied when 50 percent of vines from adjacent rows are touching (Figure 3-5). Sequential applications (7.2 ounces per acre followed by 7.2 ounces per acre) spaced two to three weeks apart are generally needed. Include crop oil concentrate and nitrogen solution (UAN) or ammonium sulfate with prohexadione calcium. Depending upon growing conditions, soil fertility, frequency of rainfall and irrigation, and variety selection, row visibility obtained in mid-August may not be sufficient through digging. Research suggests that in addition to increased row visibility, prohexadione calcium minimizes pod shed and pod loss during digging and harvesting operations. When pooled over 121 trials from 1997 to 2014, yield following two applications of prohexadione calcium was 96 pounds per acre higher than yield from nontreated peanut (4,223 versus 4,319 pounds per acre). Some environmental conditions and subsequent vine growth were not excessive in some of the trials in this data set, suggesting that the yield difference may be underestimated. However, in recent years with the variety Bailey, very few differences in yield with prohexadione calcium have been noted. While prohexadione calcium always improves row visibility, this characteristic has not always translated into yield increases with prohexadione calcium. The lack of yield response may be 2018 Peanut Information | 45 associated with pod retention for Bailey, which would limit the value of prohexadione calcium in terms of yield increase. The peanut industry is transitioning to varieties expressing the high oleic trait (Sullivan and Wynne). Sullivan may become a widely used variety in the coming years. The morphological or growth habit of Sullivan is different from that of Bailey in that its foliage is less robust than Bailey’s growth habit. This characteristic may minimize the need for prohexadione calcium in terms of row visibility. However, in 2017 many growers applied prohexadione calcium to Sullivan because growing conditions resulted in robust growth for this variety.46 | 2018 Peanut Information 4. PEANUT WEED MANAGEMENT David L. Jordan Extension Specialist—Department of Crop and Soil Sciences Effective weed management is essential for profitable peanut production. Peanuts are not very competitive with weeds and thus require higher levels of weed control than most other agronomic crops to avoid yield losses. Weeds may also decrease digging efficiency, so effective late-season weed control can minimize losses during harvest. A weed management program in peanuts consists of good weed control in rotational crops; cultivation, if needed; establishment of a satisfactory stand and growing a competitive crop; and proper selection and use of herbicides. Finally, weeds interfere with fungicide movement into the peanut canopy, often referred to as deposition, and this can negatively affect disease control. CROP ROTATION Rotate peanuts with corn or cotton to help manage various pests, including weeds. Crop rotation allows the use of different herbicides on the same field in different years. Crop and herbicide rotation, along with good weed control in the rotational crops, helps prevent the buildup of problem weeds and helps keep the overall weed population at lower levels. Crop rotation will also help reduce the chance of developing populations of weeds that are resistant to herbicides. CULTIVATION Cultivation can supplement chemical weed control. However, cultivation can damage the crop and reduce yield if not done properly. Moving soil onto the lower branches and around the base of the plants causes physical damage and enhances development of stem and pod diseases. Deep cultivation also destroys residual herbicide barriers and brings up additional weed seeds. Cultivate when peanuts are small. Set sweeps to run flat and shallow to avoid throwing soil onto the peanut plants. Generally, in-season cultivation of peanuts is not recommended. WEED SCOUTING All fields, regardless of the crop being grown, should be surveyed for weeds between mid-August and the first killing frost. Record the weed species present and note the general level of infestation of each species (light, moderate, or heavy). Weeds present in the fall will be the ones most likely to be problems the following year. Knowing what problems to expect allows you to better plan a weed management program for the following crop.2018 Peanut Information | 47 Scout peanut fields weekly from planting through mid-July to determine if or when postemergence herbicide treatment is needed. Proper weed identification is necessary because species respond differently to various herbicides. Contact your county Extension center for aid in weed identification. Timely application of postemergence herbicides is critical for effective control. Cultivation may be more appropriate if herbicide-resistant biotypes increase in prevalence. WebHADSS (Herbicide Application Decision Support System), a computer-based program designed to assist in making decisions pertaining to postemergence herbicide applications, is available online through NC State Extension (www.webhadss.ncsu.edu). Weed density, predicted crop value, predicted weed-free crop yield, herbicide and application costs, and herbicide efficacy are used to develop a ranking of the economics of herbicide options for a specific weed complex. This approach does not consider the long-term effect of weed seed production if weeds are not controlled. More importantly, allowing herbicide-resistant biotypes to reproduce, especially when they are first appearing in fields, can result in a tremendous long-term problem. The patchiness of weeds in each field and the time needed to scout fields are limitations to this approach. However, this decision support system is beneficial in explaining herbicide options. Listed below are the competitive index values assigned to weeds typically found in North Carolina peanut fields (Table 4-1). Cocklebur, with a ranking of 10, is considered the most competitive weed in peanut. Table 4-1. Competitive Indices for Weeds in Peanut* Weed Rank Weed Rank Common cocklebur 10.0 Fall panicum 1.8 Jimsonweed 5.8 Florida pusley 1.5 Common lambsquarters 5.2 Tropic croton 1.2 Smartweed 4.7 Dayflower 1.2 Redroot pigweed 4.0 Common purslane 1.2 Common ragweed 3.8 Prickly sida 1.2 Sicklepod 3.6 Horsenettle 1.1 Pitted morningglory 3.6 Yellow nutsedge 0.3 Entireleaf morningglory 3.2 Purple nutsedge 0.2 Velvetleaf 3.0 Goosegrass 0.2 Broadleaf signalgrass 1.8 Crabgrass 0.2 Eclipta 1.8*10 = most competitive weed The combined effect of interference by the weed complex is used to predict yield loss in the WebHADSS program. For example, a weed complex containing one Palmer amaranth, five yellow nutsedge, four broadleaf signalgrass, and one sicklepod per 100 square feet (33 feet of row with rows spaced 3 feet apart) would reduce peanut yield by 16 percent, based on a projected weed-free yield of 4,500 pounds per acre (Table 4-2). Using WebHADSS and given a crop value of $535 per ton, adequate growing 48 | 2018 Peanut Information conditions (good soil moisture for satisfactory herbicide performance), and large size weeds (at least 4 inches tall), WebHADSS would provide the suggestions in Table 4-3 with various economic returns. In this example, peanuts were planted May 6 and emerged May 14. The field was scouted June 4 and herbicide sprayed soon thereafter. Although issues relative to accuracy and time required for weed scouting do exist, the WebHADSS program does allow a relatively quick and clear comparison of herbicide options while taking herbicide efficacy, herbicide cost, and economic return from that investment into account. Table 4-2. Potential Yield and Economic Losses if Weeds Are Not Controlled as Compared to Weed-free Peanuts* Weed Species Population Yield Loss (lb per acre) Yield Loss (% of weed-free yield) Economic Loss ($ per acre) Palmer amaranth 1 180 4.0 48 Sicklepod 1 162 3.6 43 Signalgrass 4 324 7.2 87 Yellow nutsedge 5 66 1.5 18 Total Estimated Loss 734 16.3 196 *Anticipated yield of 4,500 pounds per acre and crop value of $535 per ton farmer stock peanuts. Table 4-3. Ranking of Selected Herbicide Options Considering Efficacy and Economics* Herbicide Gain by Applying Herbicide ($ per acre) Cost of Weed Control ($ per acre) Paraquat 170 5.1 Cadre + 2,4-DB 144 29 Clethodim then Storm + 2,4-DB 121 33 *Herbicide options other than these were listed. Includes adjuvant and application costs. Follow up applications of herbicides would be needed in most fields to obtain season-long weed control. COMMENTS ON PEANUT HERBICIDES Preplant Burndown Herbicides Glyphosate (various formulations) and Gramoxone SL (other formulations are available) are relatively nonselective herbicides that control many of the winter weeds present in reduced tillage fields (Table 4-4). Harmony Extra and 2,4-D (various formulations) can also be applied. Harmony Extra can be applied no closer to planting than 45 days before planting. 2,4-D should be applied at least 30 days before planting.2018 Peanut Information | 49 Preplant Incorporated, Preemergence, and Postemergence Herbicides Numerous herbicides are labeled for use in peanuts (Tables 4-5, 4-6, 4-7). Timely application of the appropriate herbicide at the correct rate is essential for successful weed control in peanuts. Additional information on feeding restrictions of peanut hay (Table 4-8), suggested rain-free period to maintain control (Table 4-9), and rotation restrictions on herbicide use (Table 4-10) are provided. Reduced Rates of Herbicides When crop prices are low, producers are looking for ways to reduce production costs. One possibility is to reduce the application rate of herbicides. Under certain environmental conditions and with certain weed species or weed complexes, specific herbicides can be applied below the manufacturer’s suggested use rate without sacrificing weed control. However, growers are cautioned that herbicides applied at reduced rates often do not control weeds adequately when environmental conditions (soil moisture in particular) do not favor herbicide activity. Applying herbicides at reduced rates to large weeds or weeds that are “hardened” often results in poor control as well. Weeds can also be more difficult to control if they were injured by herbicide with previous treatment. Using reduced rates will require that growers apply herbicides in a more timely manner and when weeds are not stressed. Regardless of the previously mentioned factors relative to reduced rates, manufacturers of herbicides will not back up their products when they are applied below the suggested use rate. Liability falls exclusively to the grower. COMPATIBILITY OF AGROCHEMICALS Compatibility is an important consideration when applying two or more products in the same tank. See chapter 9 for more information on agrochemical compatibility. Consult product labels, chapter 9, and your county Extension agent for more information on agricultural chemical compatibility.50 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 4-4. Weed Responses to Herbicides Applied Prior to Peanut Planting in Reduced Tillage Systems1,3 Species Gramoxone SL Glyphosate 2,4-D Glyphosate + Harmony Extra Glyphosate + 2,4-D Glyphosate + Valor SX2 Bluegrass GE E N E E E Buttercup E E G E E E Chickweed E E P E E E Curly dock NP E F E FG G Geranium GE PF PF GE F GE Henbit E E FG E E E Horseweed PF GE GE E E E Mustard FG FG GE GE E E Primrose PF F E FG E G Ryegrass G E N E E E Small grains GE E N E E E Swinecress P FG F GE G E 1 Gramoxone SL can be applied after peanut emergence; see notes in Table 4-7. Glyphosate (various formations) can be applied at or before ground cracking. 2,4-D (various formulations) should be applied 3 or more weeks before planting. Harmony Extra cannot be applied closer than 45 days prior to planting. See specific product labels for tank mixtures with these herbicides. 2 Valor SX can be applied prior to planting up to 2 days after planting. See product label for information on sprayer cleanout. 3 E = excellent control, 90% or better; G = good control, 80 to 90%; F = fair control, 50 to 80%; P = poor control, 25 to 50%; N = no control, less than 25%.2018 Peanut Information | 51 CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL IN PEANUTS Control of witchweed is part of the State/Federal Quarantine Program. Contact the N.C. Department of Agriculture, Plant Industry Division, at 1-800-206-9333. Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Preplant Incorporated, Annual grasses and small-seeded broadleaf weeds alachlor, MOA 15 (Intrro 4 EC) 2 to 3 (2 to 3 qt) Incorporate no deeper than 2 inches; see label for specific instructions. Unless shallowly incorporated, Intrro is more consistently effective when applied preemergence. Weak on Texas panicum. Do not apply more than 3 qt of Intrro per acre per season. Before using Intrro, check with buyers to determine if there are marketing restrictions on Intrro-treated peanuts. acetochlor, MOA 15 (Warrant 3 ME) 0.94 to 1.5 (1.25 to 2 qt) Apply and incorporate in top 2 inches of soil. Do not apply more than 4 qt of Warrant per acre per year. ethalfluralin, MOA 3 (Sonalan 3 EC) 0.56 to 0.75 (1.5 to 2 pt) Controls common annual grasses including Texas panicum. Use 3 pt Prowl or 2 pt ethalfluralin for control of broadleaf signalgrass, Texas panicum, and fall panicum. Incorporate 3 inches deep for Texas panicum; otherwise, incorporate 2 to 3 inches deep. See labels for maximum waiting period between application and incorporation. Immediate incorporation is best. Dual Magnum, Outlook, or Warrant may be tank mixed with Prowl or Sonalanto suppress yellow nutsedge. pendimethalin, MOA 3 (Prowl H2O 3.8 EC) (Prowl 3.3 EC) 0.71 to 1.43 (1.5 to 3 pt) (1.7 to 3.5 pt) Preplant Incorporated, Annual grasses, small-seeded broadleaf weeds, and nutsedge dimethenamid, MOA 15 (Outlook 6.0 L) 0.75 to 1 (16 to 21 fl oz) Apply and incorporate in top 2 inches of soil within 14 days of planting. Use high rate of Dual Magnum, Dual, or Outlook for yellow nutsedge and broadleaf signalgrass. Not effective on purple nutsedge. Weak on Texas panicum. May be tank mixed with Prowl or Sonalan. metolachlor, MOA 15 (Dual Magnum 7.62 EC) (Dual 8 EC) 0.95 to 1.27 (1 to 1.33 pt) (1.5 to 2 pt)52 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Preplant Incorporated, Broadleaf weeds and suppression of nutsedge diclosulam, MOA 2 (Strongarm 84 WDG) 0.024 (0.45 oz) Effective on common cocklebur, morningglory, common ragweed, eclipta, and common lambsquarters. Suppresses yellow and purple nutsedge. Does not control sicklepod. More effective when applied in combination with Dual, Outlook, Warrant, Prowl, or Sonalan. See label for rotation restrictions, especially corn and grain sorghum. Growers are cautioned that Strongarm can occasionally injure cotton the following year on soils with a shallow hardpan (less than 10 inches) and/or loam soils. Cotton grown under early season stress resulting from conditions such as excessively cool, wet, dry, or crusted soils may be particularly susceptible to carryover of Strongarm. The rotation interval between applying Strongarm to peanut and then planting cotton is 18 months in Camden, Currituck, Pasquotank, and Perquimans counties. Some weed species have developed resistance to Strongarm including common ragweed and Palmer amaranth. Preplant Incorporated, Annual grasses, broadleaf weeds, and suppression of nutsedge diclosulam, MOA 2 Strongarm + pendimethalin, MOA 3 (Prowl H2O 3.8 EC) (Prowl 3.3 EC) or ethalfluralin, MOA 3 (Sonalan 3 EC) or metolachlor, MOA 15 (Dual Magnum 7.62 EC) (Dual 8 EC) or dimethenamid (Outlook 6.0 L) or acetochlor (Warrant 3 ME) 0.024 (0.45 oz) + 0.71 to 1.43 (1.5 to 3 pt) (1.7 to 3.5 pt) or 0.56 to 0.75 (1.5 to 2 pt) or 0.95 to 1.27 (1 to 1.33 pt) (1.5 to 2 pt) or 0.75 to 1 (16 to 21 fl oz) or 0.95 to 1.5 (1.24 to 2 qt) Effective on annual grasses, common cocklebur, common ragweed, eclipta, morningglory, and common lambsquarters. Suppresses purple and yellow nutsedge. Does not control sicklepod. See Strongarm label for rotation restrictions.2018 Peanut Information | 53 Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks PPI followed by PRE, Annual grasses, broadleaf weeds, and suppression of nutsedge pendimethalin, MOA 3 (Prowl H2O 3.8 EC) (Prowl 3.3 EC) or ethalfluralin, MOA 3 (Sonalan 3 EC) or metolachlor, MOA 15 (Dual Magnum 7.62 EC) (Dual 8 EC) or dimethenamid, MOA 15 (Outlook 6.0L) or acetochlor, MOA 15 (Warrant 3 ME) followed by diclosulam, MOA 2 (Strongarm 84 WDG) or flumioxazin, MOA 14 (Valor SX 51 WDG) 0.71 to 1.43 (1.5 to 3 pt) (1.7 to 3.5 pt) or 0.56 to 0.75 (1.5 to 2 pt) or 0.95 to 1.27 (1 to 1.33 pt) (1.5 to 2 pt) or 0.75 to 1 (16 to 21 oz) or 0.95 to 1.5 (1.24 to 2 qt) 0.024 0.45 oz or 0.063 (2 oz) Controls most broadleaf weeds. Will not control sicklepod and is marginal on certain large-seeded broadleaf weeds. Do not incorporate Valor SX. Valor SX should be applied to the soil surface immediately after planting. Significant injury can occur if flumioxazin is incorporated or applied 3 or more days after planting. Significant injury from Valor SX has been noted in some years even when applied according to label recommendations. However, injury is generally transient and does not affect yield. See previous comments about cotton response to Strongarm applied the previous year on some soils. Up to 3 oz per acre of Valor SX can be applied to peanut but injury potential increases. See product label for sprayer cleanup before other uses. Split application (PPI + POST), Most broadleaf weeds and nutsedge imazethapyr, MOA 2 (Pursuit 2 AS) 0.031 + 0.031 (2 + 2 oz) Effective on most common broadleaf weeds and yellow and purple nutsedge. Does not control eclipta, lambsquarters, ragweed, or croton. Pursuit will usually control seedling johnsongrass and foxtails. For control of other annual grasses, Pursuit may be tank mixed with Dual Magnum, Dual, Outlook, Prowl H2O, Prowl, or Sonalan and incorporated. See label for incorporation directions and rotational restrictions. Some weed species have developed resistance to Pursuit. Research in N.C. has generally shown more effective control of a broader spectrum of weeds with split applications of half of the Pursuit applied preplant incorporated followed by the other half applied early postemergence.54 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Preemergence, Annual grasses and small-seeded broadleaf weeds alachlor, MOA 15 (Intrro 4 EC) 2 to 3 (2 to 3 qt) Apply as soon after planting as possible. All four herbicides are weak on Texas panicum. Before using Inntro, check with buyers to determine if there are marketing restrictions on Intrro-treated peanuts. dimethenamid, MOA 15 (Outlook 6.0 L) 0.75 to 1 (16 to 21 fl oz) metolachlor, MOA 15 (Dual Magnum 7.62 EC) (Dual 8 EC) 0.95 to 1.27 (1 to 1.33 pt) (1.5 to 2 pt) acetochlor (Warrant 3 ME) 0.95 to 1.5 (1.25 to 2 qt) Preemergence, Broadleaf weeds flumioxazin, MOA 14 (Valor SX 51 WDG) 0.063 2 oz Apply within 2 days after planting. Significant injury can occur if Valor SX is incorporated or applied 3 or more days after seeding. Controls carpetweed, common lambsquarters, Florida pusley, nightshade, pigweeds, prickly sida, and spotted spurge. Does not control sicklepod, yellow and purple nutsedge, or annual grasses. Morningglory control is marginal where Valor SX is applied at 2 oz per acre. Significant injury from Valor SX has been noted in some years even when applied according to label recommendations. However, injury is generally transient and does not affect yield. Injury may occur if excessive and forceful rainfall occurs when peanut is emerging. Peanut recovers from injury by midseason in most instances. Up to 3 oz per acre of Valor SX can be applied to peanut, but injury potential increases. See product label for comments on sprayer cleanup before other uses.2018 Peanut Information | 55 Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Preemergence, Annual grasses, broadleaf weeds, and suppression of nutsedge flumioxazin, MOA 14 (Valor SX 51 WDG) + metolachlor, MOA 15 (Dual Magnum 7.62 EC) (Dual 8 EC) or dimethenamid, MOA 15 (Outlook 6.0L) or acetlochlor, MOA 15 (Warrant 3 ME) 0.063 (2 oz) + 0.95 to 1.27 (1 to 1.33 pt) 1.5 to 2 pt) or 0.75 to 1 (16 to 21 fl oz) or 0.94 to 1.5 (1.25 to 2 qt) Apply within 2 days after planting. Significant injury can occur if applied 3 or more days after planting. The combination of Valor SX and Dual, Dual Magnum, Warrant, or Outlook does not control sicklepod but will control annual grasses (except Texas panicum) and will suppress yellow nutsedge. Valor SX and Warrant will not suppress yellow nutsedge. Significant injury from Valor SX has been noted in some years even when applied according to label recommendations. However, injury is generally transient and does not affect yield. Injury may occur if excessive and forceful rainfall occurs when peanut is emerging. Peanut recovers from injury by midseason in most instances. Up to 3 oz per acre of Valor SX can be applied to peanut but injury potential increases. See product label for comments on sprayer cleanup before other uses. diclosulam, MOA 2 (Strongarm 84 WDG) 0.024 (0.45 oz) Effective on common cocklebur, morningglory, common ragweed, eclipta, and common lambsquarters. Suppresses yellow and purple nutsedge. Does not control sicklepod. More effective when applied in combination with Dual, Dual Magnum, Outlook, Prowl, Sonalan, or Warrant. See label for rotation restrictions, especially corn and grain sorghum. See previous comments on possible cotton injury from Strongarm applied the previous year on some soils. sulfentrazone, MOA 14 + carfentrazone, MOA 14 (Spartan Charge (0.35 + 3.15 F) 0.07 to 0.12 (3 to 5 fl oz) Do not apply Spartan Charge after peanuts crack soil. Application immediately after planting is advised. See label for specific rates based on soil texture and organic matter content. See product label for comments on application with other herbicides. Rotation restriction for planting cotton following Spartan Charge at recommended rates for peanut is 12 months.56 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Preemergence, Annual grasses, broadleaf weeds, and suppression of nutsedge (continued) diclosulam, MOA 2 (Strongarm 84 WDG) + metolachlor, MOA 15 (Dual Magnum 7.62 EC) (Dual 8 EC) or dimethenamid, MOA 15 (Outlook 6.0 L) or acetolchlor, MOA 15 (Warrant 3 ME) 0.024 (0.45 oz) + 0.95 to 1.27 (1 to 1.33 pt) 1.5 to 2 pt) or 0.75 to 1 (16 to 21 oz) or 0.94 to 1.5 (1.25 to 2 qt) Effective on annual grasses, common cocklebur, common ragweed, eclipta, morningglory, and common lambsquarters. Suppresses purple and yellow nutsedge. Does not control sicklepod. See label for rotation restrictions. Some weed species have developed resistance to Strongarm. See previous comments on carryover potential to cotton on some soils and restrictions on planting corn or grain sorghum after use in peanut. Preemergence, Most annual broadleaf weeds and nutsedge imazethapyr, MOA 2 (Pursuit 2 AS) 0.063 (4 fl oz) Effective on most common broadleaf weeds and yellow and purple nutsedge. Does not control ragweed, eclipta, lambsquarters, or croton. Pursuit may be tank mixed with Dual, Dual Magnum, Warrant, or Outlook for annual grass control. See label for rotational restrictions. Some weed species have developed resistance to Pursuit. Research in N.C. has generally shown more effective control of a broader spectrum of weeds with split applications of half of the Pursuit applied preplant incorporated followed by the other half applied early postemergence. Cracking stage, Emerged annual grasses and broadleaf weeds paraquat, MOA 22 (Gramoxone 2.5 SL) (Parazone 3 SL) 0.13 (8 oz) (5.4 oz) Apply at ground cracking for control of small emerged annual grasses and broadleaf weeds. May be tank mixed with Dual, Dual Magnum, Outlook, or Warrant for residual control. Tank mix may increase injury to emerged peanuts. Add 1 pint nonionic surfactant per 100 gallons spray solution. Follow all safety precautions on label. Applying Basagran at 0.5 pt per acre will reduce injury.2018 Peanut Information | 57 Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Cracking stage and Postemergence, Additional residual control of annual grasses and certain small-seeded broadleaf weeds alachlor, MOA 15 (Intrro 4 EC) 2 to 3 (2 to 3 qt) Use as a supplement to preplant or preemergence herbicides to provide additional residual control of annual grasses and certain small-seeded broadleaf weeds such as pigweed and eclipta. This treatment will not control emerged grasses or broadleaf weeds. See product labels for recommended tank mixtures with contact and systemic herbicides with foliar activity on weeds. dimethenamid, MOA 15 (Outlook 6.0L) 0.75 to 1 (16 to 21 oz) metolachlor, MOA 15 (Dual Magnum 7.62 EC) (Dual 8 EC) 0.95 1 pt 1.5 pt acetochlor, MOA 15 (Warrant 3 ME) 0.95 to 1.5 (1.25 to 2 qt) pyroxasulfone, MOA 15 (Zidua 85 WG) (Zidua 4.25 SC) 0.08 to 0.11 (1.5 to 2.1 oz) (2.4 to 3.3 oz) Cracking stage, Most annual broadleaf weeds and nutsedge imazethapyr, MOA 2 (Pursuit 2 AS) 0.063 (4 oz) Effective on most common broadleaf weeds and yellow and purple nutsedge. Does not control ragweed, eclipta, lambsquarters, or croton. If weeds are emerged, add surfactant or crop oil according to label directions. See label for rotational restrictions. Pursuit may be tank mixed with paraquat. Some weed species have developed resistance to Pursuit. Cracking stage, Some emerged broadleaf weeds and suppression of eclipta and yellow nutsedge diclosulam, MOA 2 (Strongarm 84 WDG) 0.024 (0.45 oz) Strongarm can be applied through the cracking stage. Add 1 quart nonionic surfactant per 100 gallons. The spectrum of weeds controlled is much narrower when applied to emerged weeds. Strongarm will not control emerged common lambsquarters or pigweeds but will control common ragweed and morningglories and will suppress yellow nutsedge and eclipta. See product labels for information on mixing Strongarm with other herbicides. Some weed species have developed resistance to Strongarm. See product label for carryover potential to cotton, corn, and grain sorghum. Strongarm suppresses emerged marestail and dogfennel more effectively than other postemergence broadleaf herbicides when applied to small weeds.58 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Postemergence, Annual broadleaf weeds acifluorfen, MOA 14 (Ultra Blazer 2 L) 0.25 to 0.38 (1 to 1.5 pt) Apply when weeds are small and actively growing. Use minimum of 20 GPA and high pressure (40 to 60 psi). See label for species controlled, maximum weed size to treat, and addition of surfactant. Do not apply more than 2 pints per acre per season. May make sequential applications of 0.25 pound followed by 0.25 pound per acre. Allow at least 15 days between sequential applications. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. acifluorfen, MOA 14 (Ultra Blazer 2 L) + 2,4-DB, MOA 4 (Butyrac 200 2 L) 0.25 to 0.38 (1 to 1.5 pt) + 0.25 (16 fl oz) Addition of 2,4-DB to Ultra Blazer improves control of certain weeds when weed size exceeds that specified on the Ultra Blazer label. See label suggestions on use of surfactant or crop oil. Apply when peanuts are at least 2 weeks old and before pod filling begins. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. bentazon, MOA 6 (Basagran 4 L) 0.75 to 1 (1.5 to 2 pt) Apply when weeds are small and actively growing. Use minimum of 20 GPA and high pressure (40 to 60 psi). See label for addition of oil concentrate, species controlled, and maximum weed size to treat. Basagran may also be applied at 1 pint per acre for control of cocklebur, jimsonweed, and smartweed 4 inches or less. Do not apply more than 4 pints of bentazon per acre per season. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. bentazon, MOA 6 (Basagran 4 L) + acifluorfen, MOA 14 (Ultra Blazer 2 L) 0.5 to 1 (1 to 2 pt) + 0.25 to 0.38 (1 to 1.5 pt) See above comments for Ultra Blazer and Basagran. See labels for weeds controlled, maximum weed size to treat, and use of adjuvants. Can be applied as a tank mixture or as Storm 4L. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. bentazon, MOA 6 + acifluorfen, MOA 14 (Storm 4L) 0.5 + 0.25 (1.5 pt) These rates of bentazon and acifluorfen (Ultra Blazer and Basagran) may not provide consistent control of lambsquarters, prickly sida, spurred anoda, and morningglory. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control.2018 Peanut Information | 59 Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Postemergence, Annual broadleaf weeds (continued) bentazon, MOA 6 (Basagran 4 L) + acifluorfen, MOA 14 (Ultra Blazer 2 L) + 2,4-DB, MOA 4 (Butyrac 200 2 L) 0.5 (1 pt) + 0.25 (1 pt) + 0.125 to 0.25 (8 to 16 fl oz) Adding 2,4-DB will improve control of larger morningglory, cocklebur, common ragweed, pigweed, jimsonweed, and citron. Add surfactant or crop oil according to label directions. Apply when peanuts are at least 2 weeks old. Do not apply after pod filling begins. See comments for Ultra Blazer and Basagran alone. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. bentazon, MOA 6 (Basagran 4 L) + 2,4-DB, MOA 4 (Butyrac 200 2 L) 0.75 to 1 1.5 to 2 pt) + 0.125 (8 fl oz) Addition of 2,4-DB to Basagran improves control of morningglories. See above comments for Basagran. Add surfactant or crop oil according to label directions. Do not make more than two applications per year. Apply when peanuts are at least 2 weeks old and not within 45 days of harvest. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. imazapic, MOA 2 (Cadre 2 AS) (Impose 2 AS) 0.063 (4 fl oz) Controls most broadleaf weeds except ragweed, croton, lambsquarters, and eclipta. Apply before weeds exceed 2 to 4 inches; see label for specific weed sizes to treat. Add nonionic surfactant at 1 quart per 100 gallons or crop oil concentrate at 1 quart per acre. A soil-applied grass control herbicide should be used. However, Cadre will usually control escaped broadleaf signalgrass, large crabgrass, fall panicum, and Texas panicum but not goosegrass. Cadre can be mixed with Cobra, Ultra Blazer, and 2,4-DB. See label for rotational restrictions. Some weed species have developed resistance to Cadre. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. imazethapyr, MOA 2 (Pursuit 2 L) 0.063 (4 fl oz) Effective on most common broadleaf weeds and yellow and purple nutsedge. Does not control eclipta, lambsquarters, ragweed, or croton. Apply when weeds are 3 inches tall or less. Add surfactant or crop oil according to label directions. See label for rotational restrictions. Pursuit rmay be tank mixed with Basagran, Ultra Blazer, Gramoxone, and 2,4-DB. Some weed species have developed resistance to Pursuit.60 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Postemergence, Annual broadleaf weeds (continued) 2,4-DB, MOA 4 (Buryrac 200 2 L) 0.2 to 0.25 (12 to 16 fl oz) Effective on cocklebur and morningglory; pitted morningglory may be only partially controlled. Best results achieved when applied to small weeds. May use two applications per year. Do not apply within 45 days before harvest. lactofen, MOA 14 (Cobra 2 EC) 0.2 (12.5 fl oz) Apply after peanuts have at least six true leaves. Apply to actively growing peanut. Controls most annual broadleaf weeds. See label for species controlled and maximum weed size to treat. Add nonionic surfactant at 1 quart per 100 gallons or crop oil concentrate or methylated seed oil at 1 to 2 pints per acre. See label on when to use various adjuvants. Allow at least 14 days between applications. Can be tank mixed with Basagran, Pursuit, Cadre, 2,4-DB, and/or Select. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. lactofen, MOA 14 (Cobra 2 EC) + bentazon, MOA 6 (Basagran 4 L) 0.2 (12.5 fl oz) + 0.75 to 1 (1.5 to 2 pt) See above comments for Basagran and Lactofen alone. See labels for weeds controlled, maximum weed size to treat, and use of adjuvants. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. lactofen, MOA 14 (Cobra 2 EC) + bentazon, MOA 6 (Basagran 4 L) + 2.4-DB, MOA 4 (Butyrac 200 2 L) 0.2 (12.5 fl oz) + 0.75 to 1 (1.5 to 2 pt) + 0.125 to 0.25 (8-16 fl oz) Adding 2,4-DB will improve control of larger morningglory, cocklebur, common ragweed, jimsonweed, and citron. See above comments for bentazon, lactofen, and 2,4-DB. See labels for weeds controlled, maximum weed size to treat, and use of adjuvants. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. lactofen, MOA 14 (Cobra 2 EC) + imazapic, MOA 2 (Cadre 2 AS) (Impose 2 AS) 0.2 (12.5 fl oz) + 0.063 (4 fl oz) See above comments for imazapic and lactofen. See labels for weeds controlled, maximum weed size to treat, and use of adjuvants. Some weed species have developed resistance to Cadre. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. lactofen, MOA 14 (Cobra 2 EC) + imazethapyr, MOA 2 (Pursuit 2 AS) 0.2 (12.5 fl oz) + 0.063 (4 fl oz) See above comments for imazethapyr and lactofen. See labels for weeds controlled, maximum weed size to treat, and use of adjuvants. Some weed species have developed resistance to Pursuit.2018 Peanut Information | 61 Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Postemergence, Annual broadleaf weeds (continued) paraquat, MOA 22 (Gramoxone 2 SL) (Parazone 3 SL) 0.13 (8 fl oz) (5.4 fl oz) See label for weeds controlled and maximum weed size to treat; best results if weeds 1 inches or less. A postemergence application may be made following an at-crack application. Do not make more than two applications per season, do not apply later than 28 days after ground cracking, and do not apply if peanuts are under stress or have significant injury from thrips feeding. Gramoxone is more effective when applied within 2 weeks after peanut emergence. Add 1 pint of nonionic surfactant per 100 gallons of spray solution. Will cause foliar burn on peanuts, but peanuts recover, and yield is not affected. Follow all safety precautions on label. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. paraquat, MOA 22 (Gramoxone 2 SL) (Parazone 3 SL) + bentazon, MOA 6 (Basagran 4 L) 0.13 (8 oz) (5.4 oz) + 0.25 to 0.75 (0.5 to 1.5 pt) See previous comments for paraquat alone. Adding Basagran improves control of common ragweed, prickly sida, smartweed, lambsquarters, and cocklebur and reduces injury to peanuts from paraquat. May be applied any time from ground cracking up to 28 days after ground cracking. Add 1 pint of nonionic surfactant per 100 gallons of spray solution. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. paraquat, MOA 22 (Gramoxone 2 SL) (Parazone 3 SL) + bentazon, MOA 6 + acifluorfen, MOA 14 (Storm 4 L) 0.13 (8 fl oz) (5.4 fl oz) + 0.5 + 0.25 1 pt See previous comments for paraquat alone. Storm improves control of common ragweed, smartweed, lambsquarters, common cocklebur, tropic croton, and spurred anoda. May be applied anytime from ground cracking up to 28 days after ground cracking. Add 0.5 pint of nonionic surfactant per 100 gallons of spray solution. The mixture of Gramoxone SL and Storm is more injurious than these herbicides applied alone. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control.62 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Postemergence, Florida beggarweed chlorimuron, MOA 2 (Classic 0.25 DF) 0.008 (0.5 oz) Use only for control of Florida beggarweed. Apply from 60 days after crop emergence to within 45 days
Object Description
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Title | Peanut information |
Date | 2018-01 |
Description | 2018 |
Digital Characteristics-A | 1.93 MB; 177 p. |
Digital Format | application/pdf |
Pres File Name-M | pubs_serial_32194430_peanut2018 |
Full Text | PEANUT INFORMATION 2018 2018 PEANUT INFORMATION Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by North Carolina Cooperative Extension nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your county Cooperative Extension agent. A PRECAUTIONARY STATEMENT ON PESTICIDES Pesticides must be used carefully to protect against human injury and harm to the environment. Diagnose your pest problem, and select the proper pesticide if one is needed. Follow label use directions, and obey all federal, state, and local pesticide laws and regulations. This publication is also available at content.ces.ncsu.edu/peanut-information. Published by NC State Extension Distributed in furtherance of the acts of Congress of May 8 and June 30, 1914. North Carolina State University and North Carolina A&T State University commit themselves to positive action to secure equal opportunity regardless of race, color, creed, national origin, religion, sex, age, or disability. In addition, the two Universities welcome all persons without regard to sexual orientation. North Carolina State University, North Carolina A&T State University, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and local governments cooperating. 1,800 copies of this public document were printed at a cost of $4,137.50 or $2.29 per copy. AG-331 (Revised) 1/18—1.8M—BS/BSPeanut acreage and pod yield in North Carolina: 1909 to 20160500100015002000250030003500400045005000190919141919192419291934193919441949195419591964196919741979198419891994199920042002014Yield (lb/acre)Acreage × 100Prepared by David L. Jordan Coordinating Author and Extension Specialist—Department of Crop and Soil Sciences Rick L. Brandenburg Extension Specialist—Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology A. Blake Brown Extension Economist—Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics S. Gary Bullen Extension Associate—Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics Gary T. Roberson Extension Specialist—Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering Barbara Shew Extension Specialist—Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology Published by NC State Extension College of Agriculture and Life Sciences North Carolina State University The North Carolina Peanut Growers Association provided financial support for publishing 2018 Peanut Information. 2018 Information PEANUTCopyright © 2018 by North Carolina State University For information, contact the NC State Copyright & Digital Scholarship Center.2018 Peanut Information | iii Contents EXTENSION PERSONNEL WORKING WITH PEANUTS.................................................v 1. SITUATION AND OUTLOOK.......................................................................................1 2. PEANUT SEED.........................................................................................................16 3. PEANUT PRODUCTION PRACTICES.......................................................................20 4. PEANUT WEED MANAGEMENT............................................................................46 5. PEANUT INSECT AND MITE MANAGEMENT........................................................80 6. PEANUT DISEASE MANAGEMENT......................................................................100 7. PLANTING, HARVESTING, AND CURING PEANUTS...........................................138 8. GUIDELINES FOR THE NORTH CAROLINA PEANUT PRODUCTION CONTEST...154 9. COMPATIBILITY OF AGROCHEMICALS APPLIED TO PEANUT............................159 10. PEANUT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT AND PEANUT INDUSTRY TERMINOLOGY....................................................................167iv | 2018 Peanut Information 2018 Peanut Information | v EXTENSION PERSONNEL WORKING WITH PEANUTS County Extension personnel with peanut responsibilities as of January 1, 2018: County Name City Telephone Beaufort Rod Gurganus Washington (252) 946-0111 Bertie Billy Barrow Windsor (252) 794-5317 Bladen Bruce McLean Jr. Elizabethtown (910) 862-4591 Chowan Matthew Leary Edenton (252) 482-6585 Columbus Michael Shaw Whiteville (910) 640-6605 Craven-Carteret Mike Carroll New Bern (252) 633-1477 Cumberland Anthony Growe Fayetteville (910) 321-6875 Duplin Blake Sandlin Kenansville (910) 296-2143 Edgecombe Art Bradley Tarboro (252) 641-7815 Gates Paul Smith Gatesville (252) 357-1400 Greene Roy Thagard Snow Hill (252) 747-5831 Halifax Arthur Whitehead Halifax (252) 583-5161 Harnett Brian Parrish Lillington (910) 893-7530 Hertford Josh Holland Winton (252) 358-7822 Johnston Tim Britton Smithfield (919) 989-5380 Jones–Lenoir Jacob Morgan Trenton (252) 448-9621 Martin Al Cochran Williamston (252) 792-1621 Nash Maryanna Bennett Nashville (252) 459-9810 Northampton Craig Ellison Jackson (252) 534-2711 Onslow Melissa Huffman Jacksonville (910) 455-5873 Pender Mark Seitz Burgaw (910) 259-1235 Perquimans Dylan Lilley Hertford (252) 426-5428 Pitt Lance Grimes Greenville (252) 902-1702 Robeson Mac Malloy Lumberton (910) 671-3276 Sampson Della King Clinton (910) 592-7161 Scotland Randy Wood Laurinburg (910) 277-2422 Washington Anna-Beth Williams Plymouth (252) 793-2163 Wayne Tyler Whaley Goldsboro (919) 731-1520 Wilson Norman Harrell Wilson (252) 237-0111vi | 2018 Peanut Information NC State University Extension specialists with peanut responsibilities as of January 1, 2018: Name and email Specialty Phone Rick Brandenburg rick_brandenburg@ncsu.edu Insects (919) 515-8876 Blake Brown blake_brown@ncsu.edu Economics (919) 515-4536 Gary Bullen sgbullen@ncsu.edu Economics (919) 515-6095 David Jordan david_jordan@ncsu.edu Agronomy and Weeds (919) 515-4068 Gary Roberson gtrobers@ncsu.edu Engineering (919) 515-6715 Barbara Shew barbara_shew@ncsu.edu Diseases (919) 515-6984 Directors of peanut grower organizations: Name and email Organization Phone Bob Sutter sutter@aboutpeanuts.com North Carolina Peanut Growers Association Inc. (252) 459-5060 Dell Cotton Dcotton25@vcpeanutdma.com Peanut Growers Cooperative Marketing Association (757) 562-41032018 Peanut Information | 1 1. SITUATION AND OUTLOOK A. VIRGINIA TYPE PEANUTS: SITUATION AND OUTLOOK A. Blake Brown Extension Economist—Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics United States peanut production was estimated at 7,786 billion pounds in 2017, according to the USDA October Crop Report, up from 5,581 billion pounds in 2016. Harvested acres for the U.S. increased from 1.536 million acres in 2016 to 1.829 million acres in 2017. Yield per acre was estimated at 4,257 pounds, up from 3,634 pounds in 2016. In North Carolina, the USDA October forecast was for 118,000 harvested acres, up from 99,000 harvested acres in 2016. Forecast yields for North Carolina were estimated to be 4,100 pounds per acre. Despite greater production, end of August 2017 farmer stock equivalent of U.S. peanut stocks was down to 989 billion pounds from 1,239 billion pounds for 2016. The Price Loss Coverage (PLC) provisions for peanuts under the 2014 Farm Bill are the primary drivers for increased acreage of peanuts. However, the payment limitation of $125,000 per entity and perhaps reluctance to depart too far from crop rotations are limiting factors to increased production. With the reference price for peanuts of $535 per ton well above the cost of production in the runner areas, farmers with peanut and generic base overwhelmingly chose the PLC option. The PLC payment rate for peanuts equals the difference between the reference price of $535 per ton of PLC yield and the greater of the national marketing year average (MYA) price or loan rate of $355 per ton. Payments are on 85 percent of base acres and are reduced by 7.3 percent for sequestration. The MYA for 2016 was $394 per ton, and the PLC payment rate was $141 per ton of base yield. 2 | 2018 Peanut Information B. PEANUT PRODUCTION BUDGETS S. Gary Bullen Extension Economist—Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics David Jordan Peanut Specialist—Department of Crop and Soil Sciences The budgets in the following tables represent costs and returns that are achieved by many growers in different regions of North Carolina using strip-till or conventional production technologies. The budgets do not represent average costs and returns. Budgets are intended to be used as guides for planning purposes only. They do not include sprays for Sclerotinia blight or fumigation for CBR. The cost of gypsum is assumed to be $47.75 per ton; less expensive sources are available, although transportation costs can be significant. Current information on the peanut outlook and situation, budgets, farm management, and more is available at the North Carolina State University Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics website: www.ag-econ.ncsu.edu.2018 Peanut Information | 3 Table 1-1. Estimated Costs and Returns Per Acre of RUNNER STRIP-TILL Peanuts, 2018—4,000-Pound Yield, 4-Row Equipment Item Quantity and Unit Price or Cost per Unit ($) Total per Acre ($) Your Farm 1. GROSS RECEIPTS Peanuts 4000.00 lb 0.20 800.00 Total Receipts 800.00 2. VARIABLE COSTS* Seed 110.00 lb 0.80 88.00 Inoculant 1.00 acre 6.00 6.00 Fertilizer* Nitrogen 0.00 lb 0.12 0.00 Phosphate 48.00 lb 0.32 15.36 Potash 100.00 lb 0.20 20.00 Manganese 3.00 lb 0.35 1.05 Boron 2.50 lb 1.35 3.38 Lime (prorated) 0.33 ton 46.00 15.18 Gypsum (spread) 0.30 ton 47.75 14.33 Herbicides 1.00 acre 62.54 62.54 Insecticides 1.00 acre 18.98 18.98 Fungicides 1.00 acre 81.63 81.63 Scouting 1.00 acre 16.00 16.00 Hauling 2.00 ton 12.00 23.95 Drying & Cleaning 2.00 ton 45.00 89.82 State Check-off Fee 2.00 ton 3.00 6.00 National Assessment $800.00 0.095% 7.60 Crop Insurance 1.00 acre 30.00 30.00 Tractor/Machinery 1.00 acre 55.52 55.52 Labor 3.85 hours 11.27 43.39 Interest on Operating Capital $212.60 5.0% 10.63 Total Variable Costs 609.36 3. INCOME ABOVE VARIABLE COSTS 190.64 4. FIXED COSTS Machinery/Overhead 1.00 acre 141.41 141.41 Total Fixed Costs 141.41 5. TOTAL COSTS 750.77 6. NET RETURNS TO LAND, RISK, & MANAGEMENT 49.23Please note: This budget is for planning purposes only. It does not include sprays for Sclerotinia blight, fumigation or Proline in-furrow for CBR, land rent, or prohexadione calcium. *Fertilizer is listed as cost per lb of fertilizer listed with no adjustments for % of N, P2O5, and K2O.4 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 1-2. Estimated Costs and Returns Per Acre of RUNNER CONVENTIONAL-TILL Peanuts. 2018—4,000-Pound Yield, 4-Row Equipment Item Quantity and Unit Price or Cost per Unit ($) Total per Acre ($) Your Farm 1. GROSS RECEIPTS Peanuts 4,000 lb 0.20 800.00 Total Receipts 800.00 2. VARIABLE COSTS Seed 110.00 lb 0.80 88.00 Inoculant 1.00 acre 6.00 6.00 Fertilizer* Nitrogen 0.00 lb 0.12 0.00 Phosphate 48.00 lb 0.32 15.36 Potash 100.00 lb 0.20 20.00 Boron 2.50 lb 1.35 3.38 Manganese 3.00 lb 0.35 1.05 Lime (prorated) 0.33 ton 46.00 15.18 Gypsum (spread) 0.30 ton 47.75 14.33 Herbicides 1.00 acre 47.37 47.37 Insecticides 1.00 acre 18.73 18.73 Fungicides 1.00 acre 81.38 81.38 Scouting 1.00 acre 16.00 16.00 Hauling 2.00 ton 12.00 23.95 Drying & Cleaning 2.00 ton 45.00 89.82 State Check-off Fee 2.00 ton 3.00 6.00 National Assessment $800.00 0.095% 7.60 Crop Insurance 1.00 acre 30.00 30.00 Tractor/Machinery 1.00 acre 59.43 59.43 Labor 4.52 hours 11.27 50.94 Interest on Operating Capital $210.58 5.0% 10.53 Total Variable Costs 605.05 3. INCOME ABOVE VARIABLE COSTS 194.95 4. FIXED COSTS Machinery/Overhead 1.00 acre 143.60 143.60 Total Fixed Costs 143.60 5. TOTAL COSTS 748.65 6. NET RETURNS TO LAND, RISK, & MANAGEMENT 51.35Please note: This budget is for planning purposes only. It does not include sprays for Sclerotinia blight, fumigation or Proline in-furrow for CBR, land rent, or prohexadione calcium. *Fertilizer is listed as cost per lb of fertilizer listed with no adjustments for % of N, P2O5, and K2O.2018 Peanut Information | 5 Table 1-3. Estimated Costs and Returns Per Acre of VIRGINIA STRIP-TILL Peanuts, 2018—4,000-Pound Yield, 4-Row Equipment Item Quantity and Unit Price or Cost/ Unit ($) Total per Acre ($) Your Farm 1. GROSS RECEIPTS Peanuts 4,000 lb 0.23 900.00 Total Receipts 900.00 2. VARIABLE COSTS Seed 130.00 lb 0.85 110.50 Inoculant 1.00 acre 6.00 6.00 Fertilizer* Nitrogen 15.00 lb 0.12 0.00 Phosphate 48.00 lb 0.32 15.36 Potash 100.00 lb 0.20 20.00 Manganese 3.00 lb 0.35 1.05 Boron 2.50 lb 1.35 3.38 Lime (prorated) 0.33 ton 46.00 15.18 Gypsum (spread) 0.60 ton 47.75 28.65 Herbicides 1.00 acre 62.54 62.54 Insecticides 1.00 acre 18.98 18.98 Fungicides 1.00 acre 81.63 81.63 Scouting 1.00 acre 16.00 16.00 Hauling 2.00 ton 12.00 23.95 Drying & Cleaning 2.00 ton 45.00 89.82 State Check-off Fee 2.00 ton 3.00 6.00 National Assessment $900.00 0.095% 8.55 Crop Insurance 1.00 acre 30.00 30.00 Tractor/Machinery 1.00 acre 55.52 55.52 Labor 3.85 hours 11.27 43.39 Interest on Operating Capital $239.09 5.0% 11.95 Total Variable Costs 648.45 3. INCOME ABOVE VARIABLE COSTS 251.55 4. FIXED COSTS Machinery/Overhead 1.00 acre 144.14 144.14 Total Fixed Costs 144.14 5. TOTAL COSTS 792.59 6. NET RETURNS TO LAND, RISK, & MANAGEMENT 107.41 Please note: This budget is for planning purposes only. It does not include sprays for Sclerotinia blight, fumigation or Proline in-furrow for CBR, land rent, or prohexadione calcium. *Fertilizer is listed as cost per lb of fertilizer listed with no adjustments for % of N, P2O5, and K2O.6 | 2018 Peanut Information *Table 1-4. Estimated Costs and Returns Per Acre of VIRGINIA CONVENTIONAL-TILL Peanuts, 2018—4,000-Pound Yield, 4-Row Equipment Item Quantity and Unit Price or Cost per Unit ($) Total per Acre ($) Your Farm 1. GROSS RECEIPTS Peanuts 4,000 lb 0.23 900.00 Total Receipts 900.00 2. VARIABLE COSTS Seed 130.00 lb 0.85 110.50 Inoculant 1.00 acre 6.00 6.00 Fertilizer* Nitrogen 0.00 lb 0.12 0.00 Phosphate 48.00 lb 0.32 15.36 Potash 100.00 lb 0.20 20.00 Manganese 3.00 lb 0.35 1.05 Boron 2.50 lb 1.35 3.38 Lime (prorated) 0.33 ton 46.00 15.18 Gypsum (spread) 0.60 ton 47.75 28.65 Herbicides 1.00 acre 47.37 47.37 Insecticides 1.00 acre 18.73 18.73 Fungicides 1.00 acre 81.38 81.38 Scouting 1.00 acre 16.00 16.00 Hauling 2.00 ton 12.00 23.95 Drying & Cleaning 2.00 ton 45.00 89.82 State Check-off Fee 2.00 ton 3.00 6.00 National Assessment $900.00 0.095% 8.55 Crop Insurance 1.00 acre 30.00 30.00 Tractor/Machinery 1.00 acre 59.43 59.43 Labor 4.52 11.27 50.94 Interest on Operating Capital $228.99 5.0% 11.45 Total Variable Costs 643.74 3. INCOME ABOVE VARIABLE COSTS 256.26 4. FIXED COSTS Machinery/Overhead 1.00 acre 146.31 146.31 Total Fixed Costs 146.31 5. TOTAL COSTS 790.05 6. NET RETURNS TO LAND, RISK, & MANAGEMENT 109.95 Please note: This budget is for planning purposes only. It does not include sprays for Sclerotinia blight, fumigation or Proline in-furrow for CBR, land rent, or prohexadione calcium. *Fertilizer is listed as cost per lb of fertilizer listed with no adjustments for % of N, P2O5, and K2O.2018 Peanut Information | 7 Table 1-5. Return to Land, Overhead, and Management at Various Yields and Costs of Production for Peanut Peanut Yield (pounds/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $600/ton Potential Contract Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 750 800 850 900 950 1000 Net Return ($/acre) 3000 (1.5 tons) 150 100 50 0 -50 -100 3500 (1.75 tons) 300 250 200 150 100 50 4000 (2 tons) 450 400 350 300 250 200 4500 (2.25 tons) 600 550 500 450 400 350 5000 (2.5 tons) 750 700 650 600 550 500 Peanut Yield (pounds/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $535/ton Reference Price Over Contract Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 750 800 850 900 950 1000 Net Return ($/acre) 3000 (1.5 tons) 53 3 -47 -97 -147 -197 3500 (1.75 tons) 186 136 86 36 -14 -64 4000 (2 tons) 320 270 220 170 120 70 4500 (2.25 tons) 454 404 354 304 254 204 5000 (2.5 tons) 588 538 488 438 388 338 Peanut Yield (pounds/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $470/ton Loan Rate Plus Payment Rate Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 750 800 850 900 950 1000 Net Return ($/acre) 3000 (1.5 tons) -45 -95 -145 -195 -245 -295 3500 (1.75 tons) 73 23 -27 -77 -127 -177 4000 (2 tons) 190 140 90 40 -10 -60 4500 (2.25 tons) 308 258 208 158 108 58 5000 (2.5 tons) 425 375 325 275 225 175 Continued on the next page.8 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 1-5. Return to Land, Overhead, and Management at Various Yields and Costs of Production for Peanut (continued) Peanut Yield (pounds/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $405/ton Estimated Average World Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 750 800 850 900 950 1000 Net Return ($/acre) 3000 (1.5 tons) -143 -193 -243 -293 -343 -393 3500 (1.75 tons) -41 -91 -141 -198 -241 -291 4000 (2 tons) 60 10 -40 -90 -140 -190 4500 (2.25 tons) 161 111 61 11 -39 -89 5000 (2.5 tons) 263 213 163 113 63 13 Peanut Yield (pounds/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $355/ton Loan Rate Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 750 800 850 900 950 1000 Net Return ($/acre) 3000 (1.5 tons) -218 -268 -318 -368 -418 -468 3500 (1.75 tons) -129 -179 -229 -279 -329 -379 4000 (2 tons) -40 -90 -140 -190 -240 -290 4500 (2.25 tons) 49 -1 -51 -101 -151 -201 5000 (2.5 tons) 138 88 -12 -62 -112 -1622018 Peanut Information | 9 Table 1-6. Return to Land, Overhead, and Management at Various Yields and Costs of Production for Corn Corn Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $3/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 400 450 500 550 600 Net Return ($/acre) 60 -220 -270 -320 -370 -420 90 -130 -180 -230 -280 -330 120 -40 -90 -140 -190 -240 150 50 0 -50 -100 -150 180 140 90 40 -10 -60 Corn Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $5/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 400 450 500 550 600 Net Return ($/acre) 60 -100 -150 -200 -250 -300 90 50 0 -50 -100 -150 120 200 150 100 50 0 150 350 300 250 200 150 180 500 450 400 350 300 Corn Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $7/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 400 450 500 550 600 Net Return ($/acre) 60 20 -30 -80 -130 -180 90 230 180 130 80 30 120 440 390 340 290 240 150 650 600 550 500 450 180 860 810 760 710 66010 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 1-7. Return to Land, Overhead, and Management at Various Yields and Costs of Production for Grain Sorghum Grain Sorghum Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $2.55/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 350 400 450 500 550 Net Return ($/acre) 60 -197 -247 -297 -347 -397 90 -121 -171 -221 -271 -321 120 -44 -94 -144 -194 -244 150 33 -17 -67 -117 -167 180 309 259 209 159 109 Grain Sorghum Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $4.25/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 350 400 450 500 550 Net Return ($/acre) 60 -95 -145 -195 -215 -265 90 33 -17 -67 -117 -167 120 160 110 60 10 -40 150 288 238 188 138 88 180 415 365 315 265 215 Grain Sorghum Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $6.15/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 350 400 450 500 550 Net Return ($/acre) 60 19 -31 -81 -131 -181 90 204 154 104 54 4 120 388 338 288 238 188 150 573 523 473 423 373 180 757 707 657 607 5572018 Peanut Information | 11 Table 1-8. Return to Land, Overhead, and Management at Various Yields and Costs of Production for Cotton Cotton Yield (pounds lint/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $0.60/pound Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 500 550 600 650 700 Net Return ($/acre) 300 -320 -370 -420 -470 -520 600 -140 -190 -240 -290 -340 900 40 -10 -60 -110 -160 1200 220 170 120 70 20 1500 400 350 300 250 200 Cotton Yield (pounds lint/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $0.80/pound Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 500 550 600 650 700 Net Return ($/acre) 300 -260 -310 -360 -410 -460 600 -20 -70 -120 -170 -220 900 220 170 120 70 20 1200 460 410 360 310 260 1500 700 650 600 550 500 Cotton Yield (pounds lint/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $1.00/pound Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 500 550 600 650 700 Net Return ($/acre) 300 -200 -250 -300 -350 -400 600 100 50 0 -50 -100 900 400 350 300 250 200 1200 700 650 600 550 500 1500 1000 950 900 850 80012 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 1-9. Return to Land, Overhead, and Management at Various Yields and Costs of Production for Soybean Soybean Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $6/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 160 190 220 250 280 Net Return ($/acre) 20 -40 -70 -100 -130 -160 30 20 -10 -40 -70 -100 40 80 50 20 -10 -40 50 140 110 80 50 20 60 200 170 140 110 80 Soybean Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $10/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 160 190 220 250 280 Net Return ($/acre) 20 40 10 -20 -50 -80 30 140 110 80 50 20 40 240 210 180 150 120 50 340 310 280 250 220 60 440 410 380 350 320 Soybean Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $14/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 160 190 220 250 280 Net Return ($/acre) 20 120 90 60 30 0 30 260 230 200 170 140 40 400 370 340 310 280 50 540 510 480 450 420 60 680 650 620 590 5602018 Peanut Information | 13 Table 1-10. Return to Land, Overhead, and Management at Various Yields and Costs of Production for Wheat Wheat Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $3/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 250 300 350 400 450 Net Return ($/acre) 50 -100 -150 -200 -250 -300 65 -55 -105 -155 -205 -255 80 -10 -60 -110 -160 -210 95 35 -15 -65 -115 -165 110 80 30 -20 -70 -120 Wheat Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $5/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 250 300 350 400 450 Net Return ($/acre) 50 0 -50 -100 -150 -200 65 75 25 -25 -75 -125 80 150 100 50 0 -50 95 225 175 125 75 25 110 300 250 200 150 100 Wheat Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $7/bushel Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 250 300 350 400 450 Net Return ($/acre) 50 100 50 0 -50 -100 65 205 155 105 55 5 80 310 260 210 160 110 95 415 365 315 265 215 110 520 470 420 370 32014 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 1-11. Return to Land, Overhead, and Management at Various Yields and Costs of Production for Sweet Potato Sweet Potato Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $5.4/pound Price Assuming 70% No. 1, 20% Jumbo, and 10% Canner Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 2,000 2,300 2,600 2,900 3,200 Net Return ($/acre) 400 160 -140 -440 -740 -1,040 450 430 130 -170 -470 -770 500 700 400 100 -200 -500 550 970 670 370 70 -230 600 1,240 940 640 340 40 Sweet Potato Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $6.4/pound Price Assuming 70% No. 1, 20% Jumbo, and 10% Canner Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 2,000 2,300 2,600 2,900 3,200 Net Return ($/acre) 400 560 260 40 -260 -560 450 880 580 280 -20 -320 500 1,200 900 600 300 0 550 1,520 1,220 920 620 320 600 1,840 1,540 1,240 940 640 Sweet Potato Yield (bushels/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $7.4/pound Price Assuming 70% No. 1, 20% Jumbo, and 10% Canner Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 2,000 2,300 2,600 2,900 3,200 Net Return ($/acre) 400 960 660 360 60 -240 450 1,330 1,030 730 430 130 500 1,700 1,400 1,100 800 500 550 2,070 1,770 1,470 1,170 870 600 2,440 2,140 1,840 1,540 1,2402018 Peanut Information | 15 Table 1-12. Return to Land, Overhead, and Management at Various Yields and Costs of Production for Tobacco Tobacco Yield (pounds/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $1.50/pound Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 2,400 2,700 3,000 3,300 3,600 Net Return ($/acre) 1,800 300 0 -300 -600 -900 2,200 900 600 300 0 -300 2,600 1,500 1,200 900 600 300 3,000 2,100 1,800 1,600 1,300 1,000 3,400 2,700 2,400 2,100 1,800 1,500 Tobacco Yield (pounds/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $1.80/pound Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 2,400 2,700 3,000 3,300 3,600 Net Return ($/acre) 1,800 840 540 240 -60 -360 2,200 1,560 1,260 960 660 360 2,600 2,280 1,980 1,680 1,380 1,080 3,000 3,000 2,700 2,400 2,100 1,800 3,400 3,720 3,420 3,120 2,820 2,520 Tobacco Yield (pounds/acre) Net Return ($/acre) at $2.00/pound Price Total Cost of Production ($/acre) 2,400 2,700 3,000 3,300 3,600 Net Return ($/acre) 1,800 1,200 900 600 300 0 2,200 2,000 1,700 1,400 1,100 800 2,600 2,800 2,500 2,100 1,800 1,500 3,000 3,600 3,300 3,000 2,700 2,400 3,400 4,400 4,100 3,800 3,500 3,20016 | 2018 Peanut Information 2. PEANUT SEED David Jordan Extension Specialist—Department of Crop and Soil Sciences Bill Foote Director—North Carolina Crop Improvement Association A uniform stand of healthy, vigorous plants is essential if growers are to achieve the yields and quality needed for profitable peanut production. It is important for growers to plant high-quality seed of varieties adapted to their farm situations, management styles, and intended market uses. WHAT’S IN A BAG OF PEANUT SEED? A bag of seed peanuts contains thousands of potential plants. To grow a uniform stand of healthy plants, you need genetically pure seed that has been produced under a management system that maximizes seed health, germination, and vigor. The genetic composition of a peanut variety dictates maturity date, disease and insect resistance, peanut quality, grade, and many other characteristics. The best assurance of obtaining genetically pure seed is to purchase certified seed. Seed health is related to seedborne pathogens present on or in peanut seeds. Pathogens can reduce germination potential and can in some cases transmit peanut diseases. Professional seed producers take specific measures to reduce the level of seedborne pathogens. The extra steps they take minimize the chance for the spread of unwanted diseases. Seed lots high in germination and vigor potential will germinate more rapidly and produce more robust seedlings. These seedlings are more likely to survive moderate stress during the weeks following planting. Always purchase seed from a reputable, professional seed dealer. Bargain seed from a stranger, or even a neighbor, may not be such a bargain. Along with their seed, you could be buying weed seed or mixed varieties. You could even introduce diseases onto your farm. PEANUT SEED PRODUCTION The key component to producing high-quality peanut seed is to make the seed crop your highest farm priority. Attention to details is essential, and critical steps include the following: • field selection • seed selection2018 Peanut Information | 17 • cleaning and tuning up planting equipment • applying gypsum and boron at the right time • digging the crop when a majority of the pods are close to maturity • adjusting harvesting equipment to minimize mechanical damage • curing the peanuts slowly • storing the seeds in a cool, dry environment SAVING SEED In years when profits are low, some growers may decide that saving their own seed will help reduce production costs. Cleaning, treating, and bagging seed, however, can be expensive, and a grower may not save more than a few cents per acre. In fact, a loss may occur if the seeds they planted were of poor quality. Seed germination and vigor of saved seed can be an issue, and growers are urged to have germination tests run on saved seed immediately after harvest and again about six weeks before planting. Checking the quality of the seed early will tell the grower if the seed is worth saving. The second test will tell the grower if the seed is worth planting. Seed production is a specialized process; varietal purity, seed quality, and seed health are carefully monitored throughout the growing season and during the digging, combining, curing, cleaning, storage, and treating operations. Saving seed should not be an afterthought, but rather a process that begins well before the seed crop is planted. Growers who decide to save seed should be aware that they might be in violation of the North Carolina State Seed Law, the Plant Variety Protection Act (PVPA), and Title V of the Federal Seed Act if they sell that saved seed. According to regulations, growers may save enough seed of a PVPA-protected variety to plant back on their own holdings (land owned, leased, or rented). If the variety is protected under PVPA-Title V, a farmer may not sell any seed without the permission of the variety owner and the seed must only be sold as a Certified Class of Seed. Very few varieties currently grown in the mid-Atlantic states are not protected by PVPA-Title V. Growers who are considering selling saved seed are encouraged to consult with their department of agriculture seed sections or the North Carolina Crop Improvement Association (919-515-2851) to be sure of the variety protection level. See Table 2-1 for a list of popular Virginia market type varieties and their level of protection. North Carolina Seed Regulations require variety labeling on all peanut seed sold in the state, regardless of whether the seed is certified or farmer stock. No peanut seed can be sold as variety not stated, even if the variety is not known or the seed is a mixture of varieties.18 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 2-1. List of Varieties and Requirements for Sale Variety Can you save seed? Can you sell that saved seed? Must the saved seed be sold as a class of certified seed? Bailey Yes Only with permission Yes Bailey II Yes Only with permission Yes Brantley Yes Only with permission Yes Emery Yes Only with permission Yes CHAMPS Yes Only with permission Yes Gregory Yes Only with permission Yes Perry Yes Only with permission Yes Phillips Yes Only with permission Yes NC-V 11 Yes Only with permission Yes Sugg Yes Only with permission Yes Sullivan Yes Only with permission Yes Wynne Yes Only with permission Yes CO-OP SEED DISTRIBUTION Some growers are members of a co-op, and questions have been raised about co-op distribution of seed to growers. A farmer may bring saved seed into the co-op to be shelled, cleaned, treated, and bagged. But the entire quantity of saved seed must be returned to the farmer who produced it. The seed may not be commingled with seed from any other grower, and the seed may not be sold, traded, or given to any other grower. These actions are a violation of PVPA and the Federal Seed Act. The amount of peanuts shelled, cleaned, treated, and bagged must not exceed the amount the grower may legally save. A co-op may become a licensed seed dealer, allowing co-op members to produce their own seed as a group with seed from several growers combined and distributed among the membership. If so, steps must be taken before planting to ensure proper certification and state seed law requirements have been met. Certified seed must be grown from foundation or registered seed, fields must be inspected, and the seed must meet minimum germination standards. The co-op must be licensed under the North Carolina State Seed Law. Contact the North Carolina Crop Improvement Association (919-515-2851) for details on how to certify peanut seed and the North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services Seed Section (919-733 3930) for details about becoming a licensed seed dealer. The percentage of acres of a variety that is certified can reflect planted acreage. The percentage of certified acres for 2015, 2016, and 2017 are presented in Table 2-2.2018 Peanut Information | 19 Table 2-2. Percentage of Acres of Varieties Certified in North Carolina during 2015 , 2016, and 2017 Variety 2015 2016 2017 Bailey 64.7 47.4 40.5 Gregory 2.1 0 0.4 Sugg 9.7 1.9 0.1 Sullivan 4.8 28.7 40.2 Wynne 5.3 13.5 7.5 CHAMPS 0.4 0 0 Florida 07 1.4 1.8 0.7 FloRun 107 1.1 0.2 0 Georgia 09B 9.9 6.2 10.5 Spain 1.8 0.3 0 MAINTAINING PURITY OF HIGH OLEIC VARIETIES Releases of Virginia market types from the Virginia-Carolina region will possess the high oleic trait. This trait has been shown to improve shelf life of peanuts in general but specifically for in-shell products. Maintaining uniform expression of this trait can be influenced by management both in the field and following harvest. Digging peanuts at optimum maturity will help ensure adequate expression of the trait in commercial products. Handling and storing peanuts in a manner that prevents commingling with peanuts that do not express the high oleic fatty acid profile is essential and needs to be a focus of both seed producers and shellers. All Virginia market types grown in the Virginia-Carolina region eventually will express the high oleic trait. Runner market types grown in North Carolina and Virginia express this trait. 20 | 2018 Peanut Information 3. PEANUT PRODUCTION PRACTICES David L. Jordan Extension Specialist—Department of Crop and Soil Sciences Successful production of quality peanuts requires growers to plan an effective production and marketing program and to implement that program on a timely basis during the season. Each cultural practice and marketing decision must be effectively integrated into the total farm management plan to produce optimum profits from the whole farm. In recent years, yields have increased significantly with several records set since 2011. Several factors have contributed to high yields and include improved genetics, production of peanut on soils that are adapted to peanut production, long rotations that minimize impact of disease, availability of plant protection products for virtually all pests, and skills of farmers and their support staff who manage peanut extremely well. In North Carolina, weather conditions can have a major impact on yield, given only 15 percent of acreage is irrigated. But given good weather conditions, average yields of two tons per acre are now common in North Carolina. STAND ESTABLISHMENT Soil temperatures need to be above 65°F for germination to proceed at an acceptable rate. Large-seeded Virginia market type peanuts planted under favorable moisture and temperature conditions will show beginning radicle (root) growth in about 60 hours. If conditions are ideal, sprouting young seedlings should be visible in seven days for smaller-seeded varieties like Bailey and in 10 days for larger-seeded varieties like Wynne. Peanuts should not be planted until the soil temperature at a 4-inch depth is 65°F or above at noon for three days. Favorable weather for peanut germination should also be forecast for the next 72 hours after planting. The soil should be moist enough for rapid water absorption by the seed. The planter should firm the seedbed so there is good soil-to-seed contact. Growers should establish at least four plants per foot of row regardless of variety. This goal generally means setting the planter to deliver five seeds per foot of row. Peanuts can emerge from depths as low as 3 inches. VARIETY SELECTION Yield and quality are two major factors that influence variety selection. Growers with significant disease history may need to choose a variety with disease tolerance or resistance. Planting at least three varieties with differing maturity dates will permit efficient use of limited harvesting and curing capacities. Planting varieties with different genetic pedigrees reduces the risk of crop failure because of adverse 2018 Peanut Information | 21 weather or unexpected disease epidemics. In recent years, the variety Bailey has become the dominant variety in North Carolina because of its high yield potential and disease resistance. There is concern that heavy reliance on this variety will increase risk that is often minimized by planting a group of varieties on each farm. The selection of a variety should be based on more than one year’s data. Performance of our most popular peanut varieties from reports prepared by Dr. Maria Balota’s PVQE (Peanut Variety and Quality Evaluation) program is presented in Table 3-1. Varietal characteristics are listed in Table 3-2. Disease reaction of varieties can be found in chapter 6, “Peanut Disease Management.” Table 3-1. Percentages of FP, ELK, SMK, and Total Kernels and Pod Yield for the Major Virginia Market Type Varieties Variety % FP % ELK % SMK Total Kernels (%) Yield (lb/acre) Bailey 83 32 63 67 4,631 Bailey II 85 35 64 68 5,045 Emery 90 33 64 67 4,527 Sugg 84 32 62 66 4,341 Sullivan 85 30 62 65 4,615 Wynne 90 30 61 65 4,420*Data are from Balota et al. (PVQE Director) from eight trials during 2014 to 2016. VARIETY CHARACTERISTICS Bailey is a large-seeded Virginia market type peanut with resistance to several key peanut diseases. This variety offers tolerance to CBR, Sclerotinia blight, tomato spotted wilt, and stem rot. Seed size for Bailey is small compared with all other Virginia market types. Bailey II was released in 2017 and is the high oleic version of Bailey. Seed for this variety will not be available until after the 2020 growing season. CHAMPS is a large-seeded peanut that matures slightly earlier than other varieties. It is intermediate in resistance to tomato spotted wilt and is moderately susceptible to most other diseases. Emery is a large-seeded, high oleic variety that offers resistance to several key diseases in peanut. Vine growth is intermediate between Bailey and Sullivan. Pods and kernels for this variety are larger than those for Bailey but smaller than those for Wynne. Gregory is a large-seeded Virginia market type peanut with growth habit intermediate between bunch and runner, a pink seed coat, and a high percentage of jumbo pods and extra large kernels. It is susceptible to most diseases. Because of its large seed size, Gregory has a high calcium requirement and may show reduced seedling vigor compared with other varieties. 22 | 2018 Peanut Information Sugg is a large-seeded Virginia market type peanut with a disease management package that approaches that of Bailey. Although not as resistant to disease as Bailey, Sugg has larger pods. Sullivan is a large-seeded Virginia market type that possess the high-oleic trait and offers some resistance to some of the key diseases found in peanut in North Carolina. This variety does not have excessive vine growth like Bailey and has yielded well in many trials. Pod size is larger than Bailey but not as large as Gregory or Wynne. Wynne is a large-seeded Virginia market type possessing the high-oleic trait like Sullivan and offers some resistance to some of the key diseases. Pod size is larger than all Virginia market types except Gregory. Table 3-2. Varietal Characteristics Factors Bailey CHAMPS Gregory Emery Sugg Sullivan Wynne Growth habit (R = runner; SR = semi-runner) SR R R SR SR R SR Heat unit requirement 2,590 2,550 2,650 2,600 2,630 2,630 2,700 Comparative days to optimum maturity +2 0 +6 +4 +4 +4 +6 Seed per pound 600 535 450 535 575 575 450 Need for calcium (M = moderate; H = high) M M H H M M H Heat unit requirement = degree day accumulation (56°F base and a 95°F ceiling) required to reach optimum maturity, assuming adequate soil moisture for sustained growth and development. In comparative days to optimum maturity, – = optimum maturity for the variety occurs prior to 0; + = optimum maturity for variety occurs after 0. SELECTING AND MANAGING SOIL RESOURCES Peanuts are best adapted to well-drained, sandy loam soils, such as Norfolk, Orangeburg, and Goldsboro sandy loam soils. These soils are loose, friable, and easily tilled with a moderately deep rooting zone for easy penetration by air, water, and roots. A balanced supply of nutrients is needed. Soil pH should be in the range of 5.8 to 6.2. Peanuts grown in favorable soil conditions are healthier and more able to withstand climatic and biotic stresses. Crop Rotation A long crop rotation program is essential for efficient peanut production. The peanut plant responds to both the harmful and beneficial effects of other crops grown in 2018 Peanut Information | 23 the same field. Research shows that long rotations are best for maintaining peanut yields and quality. Benefits and potential problems associated with crops typically found within peanut-based cropping systems can be found in chapter 6, “Peanut Disease Management.” Research conducted at the Peanut Belt Research Station demonstrates the benefits of long rotations with corn and cotton. In recent years, there has been interest in crop yields, especially grains, when transitioning out of traditional peanut rotations. Results indicate that corn, cotton, soybeans, and wheat are not affected by rotation to the extent that peanuts are affected. Peanut was planted in these trials during 2013, and results indicate that the effects of rotation on peanut noted earlier are minimized when peanut is not included in the field for six years. The value of sod-based rotations on yields of peanuts and other crops has been demonstrated in the southeastern United States. In North Carolina a trial was recently completed where peanuts and other row crops were planted in either killed fescue sod or standard reduced-tillage cropping systems, including combinations of cotton and corn. During both 2010 and 2011, corn yield was higher after sod compared with combinations of traditional agronomic crops when planted several years after sod termination. Cotton yield did not differ during 2012 when compared to planting after tall fescue or agronomic crops. Peanut yield during 2013 was higher following tall fescue. In other research, peanut yield following grain sorghum was similar to that of peanut following corn or cotton. Sweet potato is a good rotation crop for peanut, while some decreases in peanut yield have been observed when peanut follows sage. Growers should plant corn, cotton, or grain sorghum for at least one year following sage before planting peanut. FERTILIZING PEANUTS Lime Peanuts grow best on soils limed to a pH of 5.8 to 6.2, provided other essential elements are in balance and available to the plant. Yields of peanuts and other crops planted in soil with four differing pH regimens are provided in Table 3-3. Dolomitic limestone is the desired liming material because it provides both calcium and magnesium. Strongly acidic soils reduce the efficient uptake and use of most nutrients and may enhance the uptake of zinc to potentially toxic levels. The efficiency of nitrogen fixation is reduced in acid soils. Molybdenum is an essential element in biological nitrogen fixation, and it can be limiting at low soil pH. Soils too high in pH are not desirable because some elements are less available to the peanut plant, and incidence of Sclerotinia blight may be greater. Manganese deficiency is often observed in fields that are overlimed. Some research has demonstrated that higher rates of calcium sulfate (gypsum or land plaster) can reduce peanut yield when soil pH in the pegging zone is relatively low (Table 3-4). These results remind us that soil pH should be maintained around 6.0 and that gypsum should be applied at rates not exceeding those currently recommended for Virginia market 24 | 2018 Peanut Information type peanuts. Increased broiler production in North Carolina and use of manure as a fertilizer source has increased concern over micronutrient toxicity. Several peanut fields have exhibited severe and yield-limiting zinc toxicities. These toxicities are increased in fields with low pH because zinc is more available at a lower pH. Maintaining soil pH around 6.0 is important in minimizing the adverse effects of zinc, and growers are cautioned not to overload fields with high levels of waste products. Micronutrient levels can build up quickly. Peanuts generally are able to tolerate zinc indices of 250. However, zinc toxicity can occur with lower index values if soil pH is low. Table 3-3. Crop Response to Soil pH Approximate Soil pH Percentage of Yield at Lower pH Values Compared with Yield at pH 5.9 Corn Cotton Peanut Soybean Wheat Grain Sorghum 4.3 26 24 55 45 41 78 4.9 76 57 62 62 72 83 5.4 99 89 83 90 100 94 5.9 100 100 100 100 100 100 Years 2 2 3 2 2 2 Table 3-4. Peanut Response to Gypsum Rate at Three Soil pH Values Relative Gypsum Rate Soil pH 5.0 5.5 6.0 0 1,920 2,720 2,900 0.5X 1,930 2,690 3,320 1.0X 2,110 2,190 3,250Data are pooled over three years. Nitrogen Roots of peanuts can be infected by bradyrhizobia bacteria. Nodules form on the roots at the infection sites. Within these nodules, the bacteria can convert atmospheric nitrogen into a nitrogen form that can be used by plants through a process called biological nitrogen fixation. This symbiotic relationship provides sufficient nitrogen for peanut production if the roots are properly nodulated. Growers should inoculate their peanut seed or fields to ensure that adequate levels of bradyrhizobia are present in each field. The data in Table 3-5 are from multiple locations and years and give an indication of the possible response of peanuts to inoculant applied as a liquid or granular in the seed furrow. These data demonstrate that while peanut response to rotation is often predictable, response to inoculant and rotation combinations is less predictable. Therefore, peanuts should be inoculated in all years regardless of previous rotation history to minimize risk and maintain yield. The economic value of inoculation is also demonstrated in these trials 2018 Peanut Information | 25 (Table 3-5). Assuming a commercial inoculant cost of $8 per acre, economic return in new peanut fields at $535 per ton was 51 times higher than the cost of the inoculant. A five-fold increase in economic return over inoculant cost was noted in fields with a recent history of peanut production. Generally, a peanut plant with 15 nodules on the tap root by 40 days after emergence has adequate nodulation. Oftentimes foliar symptoms of nitrogen deficiency will be apparent by this time if nodulation is not effective. Later in the season the plant will need many more nodules, more than 100, for optimum growth, development, and yield. If fewer than 15 nodules are noted 40 days after emergence, especially if peanut foliage is yellow, growers should consider application of ammonium sulfate. Table 3-5. Peanut Yield Response and Economic Return at a Price of $535 per ton in Fields without a History of Peanuts versus Fields with Frequent Plantings of Peanuts (1999 – 2016) Inoculant Use New Peanut Fields Fields with a Recent History of Peanuts Yield (lb per acre) Economic return ($ per acre) Yield (lb per acre) Economic return ($ per acre) No inoculant 3,571 39 4,282 229 Inoculant 5,133 449 4,475 273 Difference 1,562 410 193 44 Number of Trials 39 39 36 36 Years 1999 – 2016 1999 – 2016 Commercial inoculants can be added to the seed or put into the furrow with the seed at planting. In-furrow inoculants are available in either granular or liquid form. When inoculants are applied directly in the seed furrow, either as a spray or granular, it is essential that the product reach the bottom of the seed furrow so that infection occurs as the root system develops. Some growers have had difficulty in obtaining nodulation because soil moved in the seed furrow after seed drop but before inoculant spray or granules entered the seed furrow. Delivering granular or in-furrow sprays above seed placement also will compromise effectiveness of systemic insecticides and fungicides. In addition, shallow planting along with in-furrow spray inoculants have performed poorly under hot and dry soil conditions. Peanuts are capable of emerging from depths of at least 3 inches; therefore, it is advisable to plant deep to protect sprayed inoculant from breakdown caused by high temperatures. Direct applications of nitrogen to peanuts are not generally needed. However, application of nitrogen fertilizers can increase yield, but only when peanuts are not nodulating and nitrogen deficiency is obvious. Research indicates that 90 to 120 pounds actual nitrogen per acre as a single application may be needed to obtain yields similar to adequately 26 | 2018 Peanut Information nodulating peanuts when a true nitrogen deficiency exists. Economic return on investment of inoculant and various rates of ammonium sulfate are also compared in Table 3-6 at a peanut price of $560/ton and fertilizer cost of $0.29/pound ammonium sulfate. While a rate of 90 pounds of nitrogen is the most economically effective, in some trials 120 pounds of nitrogen were needed when late-season rainfall was excessive. Lower rates also may be effective but perform inconsistently. Research also suggests that ammonium sulfate is a more effective source than ammonium nitrate. Split applications may be more efficient than a single application. Best results are obtained when applications are made early in the season. Peanuts grown on deep, sandy soils often respond to nitrogen fertilization and may lap middles more quickly, even when inoculation is adequate. Rapid canopy closure results in cooler soil temperatures in the pegging zone. When soils have high temperatures, pegs cannot survive. Table 3-6. Peanut Response to Inoculation and Ammonium Sulfate at 571 lb/acre (120 lb actual N/acre) Applied when Nitrogen Deficiency Is First Visible. Inoculant Ammonium Sulfate Pod Yield (lb/acre) Net Return ($/acre) No No 3,530 c 20 c Yes No 4,850 a 353 a No Yes 4,550 b 271 b Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at p < 0.05. Potassium and Phosphorus The most efficient and easiest way to apply potassium is to apply it to the crop preceding peanuts. This practice usually increases the yield of the preceding crop and allows the potassium to leach into the area where the peanut root system obtains most of its nutrients. However, if NC Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services soil test recommendations indicate that potassium and phosphorus are needed, then the appropriate levels of these nutrients should be applied. Many growers and researchers feel that high levels of soil potassium in the fruiting zone (the upper 2 or 3 inches of soil) result in more pod rot and interfere with the uptake of calcium by pegs and pods, which results in a higher percentage of “pops” and calcium deficiency in the seeds. If the potassium level is high in the fruiting zone, a higher rate of gypsum may be needed. Most of the peanut soils in North Carolina have adequate levels of phosphorus for good peanut production. Once a medium or higher level of phosphorus is achieved, it remains quite stable over a number of years. The addition of phosphorus-containing fertilizer to peanuts is generally not needed if it is applied to other crops in the rotation. However, soil testing is the only way to be sure.2018 Peanut Information | 27 Calcium Perhaps the most critical element in the production of large-seeded Virginia market type peanuts is calcium. Lack of calcium uptake by peanuts causes “pops” and is often reflected as darkened plumules in the seed. Seeds with dark plumules usually fail to germinate. Calcium must be available for both vegetative growth and pod growth. Calcium moves upward in the peanut plant but does not move downward. Thus, calcium does not move to the peg and pod and developing kernels. The peg and developing pod absorb calcium directly from soil, so it must be readily available in the soil. Adequate soil calcium is usually available for good plant growth but not for pod development for good quality peanuts. It is important to provide calcium in the fruiting zone through gypsum applications. Gypsum should be applied to all Virginia market types, regardless of the soil characteristics or soil nutrient levels. The calcium supplied through gypsum application is relatively water soluble (compared to other calcium sources) and more readily available for uptake by peanut pegs and pods. Each pod must absorb adequate calcium to develop normally. Gypsum product materials vary in elemental calcium content. Studies show that all forms of gypsum effectively supply needed calcium when used at rates that provide equivalent calcium levels uniformly in the fruiting zone. General recommendations for application rates are given in Table 3-7. Table 3-7. Gypsum Sources and Application Rates Source % CaSO4* Application Rate (lb/acre) Band (16-18 in) Broadcast USG Ben Franklin 85 600 — USG 420 Granular 83 — 1,215 USG 500 70 — 1,300 Super Gyp 85 85 — 1,200 TG Phosphogypsum 50 — 2,000 Agri Gypsum 60 — 1,800 Gyp Soil 85 — 1,200 *Guaranteed analysis percentage in registration with North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. The use of gypsum on large-seeded peanuts is very effective in improving peanut seed quality and grades. Some research data indicate that high rates of gypsum may control or reduce the pod rot disease complex. Gypsum should not be broadcast before land preparation or before planting because too much rain may leach the calcium below the fruiting zone.28 | 2018 Peanut Information Best results are obtained when gypsum is applied in late June or early July. The availability of calcium supplied by gypsum application is also influenced by the amount of rainfall. Moisture is needed to make gypsum soluble and calcium available to the peanut fruit. In unusually dry years, peanuts may show symptoms of calcium deficiency, even when recommended rates of gypsum are applied. Increasingly, there are questions concerning the need to apply gypsum as supplemental calcium to peanuts. Sometimes peanuts do not respond to supplemental calcium. Sometimes peanuts respond well to half the amount given in Table 3-7. The interactions of environmental conditions, seed size, soil series, native fertility, and soil moisture are unpredictable. However, for a consistent response over a wide range of soil characteristics and weather conditions, the full rate of gypsum is recommended for Virginia market types. Growers are encouraged to evaluate peanut response to gypsum on their own farms before leaving off this input or reducing rates below those presented in Table 3-7. Data from twelve trials (Table 3-8) indicate that gypsum at rates below those recommended in Table 3-7 can, in some cases, be effective. Table 3-8. Pod Yield Following Application of Gypsum at 0.5 and 1 Times (X) the Recommended Use Rate for Virginia Market Types. Pod Yield (lb/acre) No. of Trials Pod Yield (lb/acre) No Gypsum 0.5X Gypsum 1.0X Gypsum Actual yield 12 3,970 4,510 4,590 Increase in yield over no-gypsum control — — 540 620 In some years, for example 2013, excessive rainfall occurred during June and July after gypsum had been applied. If rainfall exceeding 5 inches occurs over a short period of time within a few weeks after gypsum is applied, growers should consider applying a rate of 0.5 times the normal use rate to make sure sufficient calcium is in soil during the entire period of reproductive growth. Likewise, if growers cannot get into fields to apply gypsum on time due to wet soils, gypsum still needs to be applied even if application is delayed until early to mid-August. While liquid calcium products are available, they are not a substitute for gypsum. There is also a question of whether or not the gypsum rate needs to be increased for extremely large-seeded Virginia market type varieties, such as Gregory. Results from 2001 to 2005 at two locations, during each year, indicated that a rate of gypsum 1.5 times the recommended rate did not increase pod yield over the normal use rate in most experiments. While the data did indicate that the large-seeded variety Gregory was more responsive to gypsum than the much smaller-seeded variety NC-V 11, there was no advantage to applying gypsum at rates exceeding those rates listed in Table 3-7.2018 Peanut Information | 29 In recent years, runner market type varieties referred to as “jumbo runners” have become more popular. These varieties, such as Georgia 06G, will require supplemental calcium compared to the smaller-seeded runners like Georgia Green. Growers should apply at least half the rate recommended for Virginia market types (Table 3-7). Manganese and Boron Two other elements often found to be deficient in peanuts are manganese and boron. Manganese deficiency usually occurs when soil is overlimed. Increasing the soil pH reduces the plant’s uptake of manganese. The symptom of manganese deficiency is interveinal chlorosis. This symptom can be confused with carryover of atrazine (from corn) or Cotoran/Meturon (from cotton). A deficiency can be corrected by a foliar application of manganese sulfate. The usual practice is to apply 3.5 to 4 pounds per acre of dry material when the deficiency is observed. Boron plays an important role in kernel quality and flavor. Boron deficiency may occur in peanuts produced on deep, sandy soils. Deficient kernels are referred to as having “hollow hearts.” The inner surfaces of the cotyledons are depressed and darkened, so they are graded as damaged kernels. A general recommendation is to apply 0.5 pound of actual boron per acre as a foliar spray in early July. Several formulations of boron are available. Some growers apply boron with their preplant incorporated herbicides, and others have boron added to their fertilizers. Growers are advised to make sure boron and manganese sources provide sufficient elemental boron. Several liquid boron and manganese formulations are available. Although liquid sources are more convenient to use than some dry products, some of the liquid products contain only a fraction of the needed boron or manganese. The amount of formulated product needed to supply 0.5 pound elemental boron per acre is provided in Table 3-9. Similarly, the amount of formulated manganese product needed to supply 1.0 pound of manganese per acre or two applications of 0.5 pounds of manganese spaced 10 to 14 days apart is provided in Table 3-10. Lower rates of boron or manganese are often applied for “maintenance.” Growers should make sure the product they purchase supplies the amount of boron or manganese the plant needs. Table 3-9. Amount of Formulated Product Needed to Provide Equivalent Amounts of Elemental Boron per Acre Source Amount Needed to Supply 0.5 lb Boron per Acre Boric acid 3.0 lb Disodium octaborate (Solubor, 17.5% boron) 2.8 lb Liquid (9.0% boron) 2.2 qt30 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 3-10. Amount of Formulated Manganese Products Needed to Provide Equivalent Amounts of Elemental Manganese per Acre Source Amount Needed to Supply 1.0 lb Manganese per Acre Manganese sulfate (Techmangum, 27% manganese) 3.7 lb Manganese sulfate (8% manganese) 1.2 gal The percentage of element (in this case, manganese or boron) or the weight of the element per unit volume of product can be used to determine the amount of liquid product needed to correct a nutrient deficiency. For example, if 1 pound of manganese is needed per acre, the following formulas can be used to determine the amount of 8 percent water-soluble manganese product needed per acre. Step 1. Figure the weight of manganese per gallon by multiplying the percentage of manganese in product in pounds by the weight of product in pounds per gallon: % manganese in product × lb product per gal = lb manganese per gal Step 2. Figure the gallons of manganese product per acre by dividing the desired amount of manganese in pounds per acre by the weight of the manganese per gallon: desired lb manganese per acre = gal manganese product per acre lb manganese per gal Example: Step 1. 0.08 × 10.5 lb manganese sulfate per gal = 0.84 lb manganese sulfate per gal Step 2. 1 lb manganese per acre desired = 1.2 gal 8% manganese product per acre 0.84 lb manganese per gal LAND PREPARATION Historically, peanut growers have planted into conventionally prepared seedbeds to obtain a smooth, uniform, residue-free seedbed for planting. The effectiveness of burial of old crop residue and weed seed in the long-term suppression of soilborne diseases and short-term suppression of some weed problems was noted when the moldboard plow was used. However, only 7 percent of acres were treated this way, based on a 2009 survey in North Carolina (Table 3-11), in part because newer plant protection products are very effective. There is also a growing trend toward reduced-tillage crop production in North Carolina, and some growers are successfully using these practices for peanut. There has also been a significant decrease in the 2018 Peanut Information | 31 number of growers using moldboard plowing. Changes in tillage systems over the past decade are presented in Table 3-11. Table 3-11. Percentage of Farmers Using Certain Tillage Practices on at Least a Portion of Their Farms Tillage 1998 2004 2009 2014 Disk 90 78 71 75 Chisel 25 23 27 12 Moldboard plow 58 17 7 5 Field cultivate 75 55 42 44 Rip and bed 49 39 40 55 Bed 44 35 32 25 Reduced tillage 10 23 41 20 There is concern about stratification of nutrients in reduced-tillage systems. For example, repeated applications of potassium in reduced-tillage cotton may result in excessive amounts of this nutrient in the pegging zone when peanuts are planted in a reduced-tillage system. Growers are encouraged to test soils for excessive potassium levels and incorporate this nutrient with tillage, if needed. Many peanut growers bed their peanut fields either in the fall or the spring. Many growers prefer planting on raised beds rather than flat planting. The beds often give faster germination and early growth, provide drainage, and may reduce pod losses during digging. While reduced-tillage systems can be as successful as conventional-tillage systems, reduced-tillage systems often have less consistent yields than conventional-tillage systems. However, most peanut production has shifted to sandy soils that respond more favorably to reduced-tillage systems. A summary of peanut response to tillage is presented in Table 3-12. Table 3-12. Peanut Yield Response to Tillage Practices in North Carolina, 1999 to 2013. A positive value indicates that yield of peanut in conventional tillage exceeded yield of peanut in reduced tillage. No. of Trials Years Actual Yield Difference (lb/acre) Yield Difference (%) Range of Yield Difference (%) 65 1997 – 2013 +132 +3.4 -16.1 to +27.5 Because of concern about digging losses on finer-textured soils, it is recommended that beds be established in the fall with a grass cover crop with peanuts strip-tilled into previously prepared beds. Research during 2005 and 2006 demonstrated that wheat, cereal (cover crop), rye, oats, and triticale can serve equally well as wheat when used as a cover crop grown the winter and spring prior to planting peanuts. A risk advisory index has been developed to assist growers in deciding the risk of 32 | 2018 Peanut Information peanut yield in reduced-tillage systems being lower than yield in conventional-tillage systems (Table 3-13). Research also suggests that prior cropping history generally does not affect peanut response to tillage. However, peanuts are often more responsive to tillage systems, primarily because of the digging requirement. The risk advisory index has been modified from the initial version. A positive value indicates that yield was higher in conventional tillage than in reduced tillage. Table 3-13. Advisory Index for Determining the Risk of Peanut Yield in Reduced-Tillage Systems Being Lower Than Yield in Conventional-Tillage Systems Soil series Roanoke and Craven…40 points Goldsboro and Lynchburg…20 points Norfolk…10 points Conetoe and Wanda…0 points Pod loss on finer-textured soils, such as those on the Roanoke and Craven series, is often greater than on coarser-textured soils, such as Conetoe and Wanda series, regardless of tillage system. Difficulty in digging can increase when these soils become hard in the fall if rainfall is limited. Soil series Your score: Tillage intensity No tillage into flat ground…35 points Strip tillage into flat ground…10 points Strip tillage into stale seedbeds…0 points Peanut response to reduced-tillage systems is invariably correlated with the degree of tillage. Efficient digging can be difficult when peanuts are planted in flat ground in reduced-tillage systems. Although fields may appear to be flat and uniformly level, often fields are more rugged than they appear, and setting up the digger to match unforeseen contours in the field can be difficult. Strip tillage into flat ground is a better alternative than no tillage into flat ground, although digging peanuts planted on flat ground can be more challenging regardless of the tillage system. Strip tillage into preformed beds often results in yields approaching those of conventional tillage. Tillage intensity Your score: Risk of yield being lower in reduced tillage than in conventional tillage: 35 or Less—Low Risk 40 to 50—Moderate Risk 55 or more—High risk Total index value Your score: 2018 Peanut Information | 33 PLANTING Varieties grown in North Carolina can require as many as 160 days for full pod maturity, depending upon soil moisture and temperature. Along with yield and market grades, planting date can affect disease and insect development (see chapters 5 and 6). Less damage from thrips and lower incidence of tomato spotted wilt virus have been associated with later plantings. Peanut yields are often the highest when peanuts are planted in mid-May. However, in some years peanuts planted later can yield quite well. Conditions in the fall, especially night temperatures, can have a great impact on yield when they prevent peanut pods from reaching optimum maturity. Data for the variety Bailey during 2013 to 2017 exposed to three planting dates when peanut was dug at optimum maturity based on pod mesocarp color are provided in Table 3-14. Yield differences among planting dates were noted in all years. In most years planting in mid-May resulted in the highest yields. When peanut was planted in mid-June following wheat, yield was substantially lower compared with planting in May (Table 3-15). Table 3-14. Yield (lb/acre) of the Variety Bailey as Influenced by Planting Dates at Lewiston-Woodville from 2013 to 2017 Planting Date 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 May 3 – 4 4,955 5,114 4,816 3,848 5,868 May 16 – 19 6,123 4,524 6,337 5,009 5,417 May 28 6,352 3,898 4,001 4,481 5,198 Table 3-15. Yield (lb/acre) of the Variety Bailey Planted in Early and Late May and Following Wheat Harvest in Mid-June at Lewiston-Woodville from 2013 to 2017. Planting Date 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 May 2 3,340 3,660 5,590 3,640 4,173 May 22 3,470 3,690 3,840 5,016 6,312 June 20 3,070 2,930 2,030 3,045 3,273 Seeding Rates and Twin Rows Table 3-16 provides the conversion of seed per foot of row to pounds per acre in order to establish the desired plant population for a given variety. Germination percentage is not considered in this conversion, but it should be considered when planning planting.34 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 3-16. Approximate Pounds of Peanut Seed Required per Acre to Provide 3, 4, and 5 Seeds per Foot of Row on 36-Inch Rows Variety Seed/lb Pounds per Acre (36-inch rows) 3 Seeds/ft 4 Seeds/ft 5 Seeds/ft Bailey 600 72 95 120 CHAMPS 535 76 102 135 Emery 535 76 102 135 Gregory 450 97 129 161 Sugg 575 76 101 126 Florida 07* 650 64 87 110 Georgia 06G* 650 64 87 110 Sullivan 575 76 101 126 Wynne 500 87 116 145 *Denotes runner market types. All other varieties are Virginia market types. Table 3-17. Relationship Between In-row Plant Density (Seed per Linear Foot of Row) and Total Number of Seed per Acre on 30-inch and 36-inch Rows. Seed per Linear Foot 30 inch rows 36-inch rows 4 69,696 58,080 5 87,120 72,150 6 104,544 87,126 In the Southeast, less tomato spotted wilt virus has been associated with twin row plantings than with single rows. Similar results have been observed in North Carolina. Higher plant populations and closer row spacings often result in fewer symptoms of virus. Pod yield of peanut in twin rows was higher than yield of single rows by 235 pounds per acre (Table 3-18). Seeding peanuts in narrow rows or at extremely high seeding rates has not increased yield over twin row plantings that establish a plant population of five plants per foot of row (sum of both twin rows). Although higher seeding rates are needed, and higher rates of in-furrow insecticide and inoculant are required, twin rows tend to produce a greater taproot crop rather than a limb crop. This tendency can improve uniformity of harvested peanuts, and in a dry season when peanut vines do not lap, this can result in higher yields. One of the detriments of twin row plantings, especially with the higher plant populations, is excessive vine growth, which can make digging more difficult. Table 3-18. Peanut Yield Response to Twin Row Planting Planting Pattern Pod Yield (pounds/acre) Single Rows 3,760 Twin Rows 3,995 Difference 235 Number of Trials 202018 Peanut Information | 35 IRRIGATION Having adequate water available throughout the peanut life cycle is important for optimal plant growth and development. Drought or flood can have tremendously negative impacts on peanut yields and quality. Likewise, pest infestation and severity of damage from these pests is influenced by available water, either in the form of rainfall or irrigation. Understanding how environmental conditions, and in particular irrigation, affect pest complexes is important in developing appropriate management strategies. Although less than 20 percent of North Carolina peanut acreage is irrigated, irrigation is a powerful production tool. Irrigation minimizes risk and enhances consistency of yield. In addition, irrigation improves consistency of pesticide performance and in many ways the predictability of pest complexes. The major production and pest management practices employed in North Carolina peanut production are listed in Table 3-19, with brief comments on how irrigation or ample rainfall affects efforts to manage pests or supply peanuts with adequate nutrition. Research supported by the North Carolina Peanut Growers Association has been conducted to determine the feasibility of subsurface drip irrigation. While there are many logistical issues associated with this approach, data collected at Lewiston-Woodville in corn, cotton, and peanut indicate that this approach to irrigation is feasible. As expected, corn yield was affected more than cotton or peanut yield by irrigation. Peanut yield was maintained more effectively than cotton in dry years without irrigation. These data give a good indication of yield under growing conditions where water is not limiting relative to dry-land production for these crops. DETERMINING MATURITY Maturity affects flavor, grade, milling quality, and shelf life. Not only do mature peanuts have the quality characteristics that the consumer desires; they are also worth more to the producer. However, the indeterminate fruiting pattern of peanuts makes it difficult to determine when optimum maturity occurs. The fruiting pattern can vary considerably from year to year, mostly because of the weather. Therefore, each field should be checked before digging begins. The hull-scrape method, currently the most objective method, requires the use of a peanut profile board that is available at county Extension centers. The peanut profile board in Figure 3-1 was developed for runner market types grown in the southeastern United States. A version of the peanut profile board was developed for Virginia market types grown in the Virginia-Carolina region (Figure 3-2). It is important to follow a specific maturity prediction method to achieve maximum dollar value for peanuts. Also, expression of the high oleic trait is lower in immature kernels compared to kernels that are older and more fully developed. To ensure the benefits and uniformity of high oleic expression in the cultivars Sullivan and Wynne, digging peanut as close to optimum maturity is advised.36 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 3-19. Impact of Irrigation on Production and Pest Management Strategies Production or Pest Management Practice Benefits of Irrigation or Optimum Rainfall Land preparation Helps in establishment of seedbeds, either conventional or reduced tillage. Seed germination Ensures germination of seed when existing soil moisture is marginal for complete stand establishment. Weed management Irrigation or adequate rainfall activates preemergence herbicides and minimizes plant stress. Less moisture stress often enhances control by postemergence herbicides and enables peanut to recover more rapidly from herbicide damage. Insect management Important for activation of in-furrow insecticides. Improves plant growth and root establishment, which is important in absorption of in-furrow insecticides. Improves peanut recovery from early season insect damage and insecticide phytotoxicity. Increases likelihood of southern corn rootworm survival and subsequent damage to pods but can protect against damage from lesser cornstalk borer. Minimizes potential damage from corn earworms and armyworms by establishment of a dense canopy that can withstand damage from feeding. Reduces the likelihood of spider mite damage by keeping spider mite populations low. Disease management Wet conditions early in the season can favor infection of peanut by CBR, but can minimize potential for crown rot. Irrigation increases likelihood of having a favorable microclimate for development of foliar and soilborne disease. A dense canopy that is supplemented by irrigation increases humidity within the canopy and minimizes airflow, all of which favor pathogen and disease development. Symptoms associated with tomato spotted wilt of peanut are often more pronounced when peanuts are growing under dry and especially hot conditions. Timely irrigation will reduce plant stress and possibly enable plants to withstand tomato spotted wilt more effectively than nonirrigated, water-stressed plants. Pod maturation Irrigation buffers against extremes in moisture and reduces stress (heat and drought), which allows normal flower production and kernel development. Maturation is more predictable and generally earlier. Limited rainfall during reproductive growth often causes delays in maturation and establishment of “multiple crops” or “split crops” on the same plant. Sufficient rainfall is critical for complete kernel development and pod fill. Limited soil moisture during flowering can reduce pegging. Irrigation modeling programs often include soil temperature as a trigger for irrigation during pegging. Supplemental calcium Kernels need adequate calcium to become mature and completely developed. Irrigation buffers against drought, which reduces calcium concentration in soil water and mass flow movement into developing pegs. Digging Ability to supply soil water to improve digging conditions (reduces hardness of soil), improves digging efficiency, and minimizes pod loss during the digging process.2018 Peanut Information | 37 Heat units, or growing degree days (DD), can be a means of determining maturity. One growing degree day (base 56°F) accumulates when the average daily high and low temperature is 57°F. If the average daily high and low temperatures were 76°F, then 20 growing degree days accumulate for that day. Research has shown that 2,520 to 2,770 growing degree days are needed for Virginia market types to mature if soil moisture is not limiting. Variation in heat unit accumulation for 2009 to 2015 is presented in Table 3-20. Pod maturation generally ceases in the fall when night temperatures are in the mid- to high 40s for two nights in a row. Even though day temperatures may increase considerably, the plant seldom recovers from these cooler night temperatures. In 2011 at Lewiston-Woodville, low temperatures ranged from 44°F to 47°F from October 1 to 4 and essentially eliminated any further maturation of pods. During 2012 at this location, daily lows of 46°F were noted on two consecutive days (September 24 and 25). Temperature was between 42°F and 45°F on four consecutive days from October 11 to October 14, 2012. However, during 2012, temperature and heat units in early October increased considerably compared with other years, allowing peanut to continue maturing. Table 3-20. Average Heat Unit Accumulation per Day (DD56) from May 16 through November 1 at Lewiston-Woodville for Various Categories Time period Average for the Interval Described 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Ave. May 16–Jun. 15 17.8 19.1 20.7 15.4 17.6 15.9 19.5 16.4 17.8 17.8 Jun. 16–Jul. 15 20.1 24.5 25.2 23.0 21.2 22.5 25.5 21.7 23.6 23.0 Jul. 16–Aug. 15 22.9 26.3 28.0 24.8 22.4 18.9 23.5 25.6 21.3 23.7 Aug. 16–Sep. 15 18.5 20.9 21.3 20.2 20.9 20.0 23.5 21.9 17.8 20.6 Sep. 16–Oct. 15 11.9 14.4 11.1 20.3 10.6 11.1 12.8 13.9 16.0 13.6 Oct. 16–Nov. 1 7.1 9.3 1.3 4.5 3.8 2.9 2.8 7.3 3.4 4.7 Pod yields from 2012 to 2014 for the variety Bailey are presented over six digging dates starting in early September and occurring on intervals of approximately one week (Figure 3-3). While yields increased as digging was delayed during 2012 and 2013 well into October, a more typical yield curve for digging trials was observed in 2014. Many peanut fields had a very “tight” maturity profile during 2014 compared with previous years. Although this characteristic can increase yield and market grades, if digging is delayed past the optimum window, yield can decrease more rapidly. A typical response of peanut to digging date can also be seen for the variety Gregory and includes both yield and key market grade factors (Figure 3-4). Research during 2016 compared yield of Bailey, Wynne, and Sullivan planted in mid-May and dug September 8, 16, and 29 and October 14. Maturity of these varieties varied little when comparing pod mesocarp color, and there was no interaction of variety and digging date. When averaged over varieties, delaying digging from September 8 to September 16 resulted in a yield increase from 4,166 pounds per acre to 5,037 38 | 2018 Peanut Information Figure 3-1. The traditional profile board shown below was developed for runner market type production in the southeastern United States. Figure 3-2. The peanut profile board shown below was developed for Virginia market types.2018 Peanut Information | 39 pounds per acre. Yield varied only slightly (5,037 versus 4,967 pounds per acre) when delaying digging from September 16 to September 29. However, when dug on October 14, yield decreased by 1,037 pounds per acre compared with yield on September 29. This amount of yield loss was not uncommon in some areas of North Carolina following Hurricane Matthew. This weather event occurred when maturity of peanut in many fields was slightly past the optimum digging date. The additional delay of one more week resulted in shed of many of the mature pods during digging. Although market grade characteristics often remain high when peanuts are dug later in the fall, yield is often lower due to pod shed. A balance between digging too soon and digging before frost or inclement weather needs to be reached to maximize yield and quality. At harvest, growers should follow the weather forecast closely and not dig peanuts when freezing temperatures are expected. It is also important to have adequate harvesting and curing equipment so that the peanut crop can be handled within a reasonable period of time. At least three days, and in many cases more than three days, are needed between the time of digging and frost to allow sufficient drying to prevent freeze damage. Digging and harvest capacity for growers are important to consider. The speed at which growers can plant peanuts is not the same as the time and labor it takes to dig, combine, dry, and haul peanuts. Most crops require a one-step process to harvest, while peanuts require two stages. Soil conditions during digging must be ideal to effectively remove peanuts from the soil and invert vines. Growers need to realistically determine the amount of time these operations will require. With respect to digging, it is estimated that with four-row equipment and six-row equipment, 30 and 40 acres can be dug per day if growers dig for 10 hours a day driving at 3 mph with no interruptions. A six-row self-propelled combine can harvest 20 acres in a day driving at 1.5 mph, while four-row and six-row pull-type combines can harvest 15 to 20 acres in a day, respectively. Weather conditions can have a tremendous impact on the number of hours peanut can be dug and combined in a given day, and the estimates provided here relative to time represent a best-case scenario. As stated previously, both planting and digging date can have an impact on peanut yield and quality. Disease can have an impact on peanut response to digging date. Results with Dr. Barbara Shew from research conducted with the variety Gregory over six years demonstrate the value of digging peanut at optimum maturity (October 15) and controlling foliar disease (five-spray fungicide program) (Table 3-21). Yield increased by 400 to 550 lb/acre over the three digging intervals (September 20 to October 15).40 | 2018 Peanut Information 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 128 135 146 153 160 Yield ELK TSMK Digging Date (days after planting) Percent of Maximum Yield Figure 3-4. Pod yield (lb/acre) and percentages of extra large kernels (ELK) and total sound mature kernels (TSMK) for the variety Gregory to digging date. Data are from 18 trials during 2003 – 2013. Figure 3-3. Response of the variety Bailey to digging date. Peanut was planted approximately May 3 during 2012, 2013, and 2014. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10-Sep 17-Sep 24-Sep 1-Oct 8-Oct 15-Oct 2012 2013 2014 Digging Date Percent of Maximum Yield 2018 Peanut Information | 41 Digging very early resulted in lower yields even when disease was controlled. The balance between pod loss from disease and immature peanut resulted in no difference in yield across digging dates. See chapter 6 for more information on disease management in peanuts. Table 3-21. Percent Canopy Defoliation, Pod Yield, and Percentage of Extra Large Kernels for the Variety Gregory as Influenced by the Interaction of Digging Date and Fungicide Digging date Fungicide program None 2 sprays 5 sprays Canopy defoliation (%) September 20 22 c 9 d 3 e October 5 38 b 15 d 3 e October 15 57 a 41 b 4 e Pod yield (pounds/acre) September 20 3200 de 3,280 cd 3,540 bc October 5 3230 d 3,290 cd 3,680 ab October 15 2930 e 3,330 cd 3,880 a Extra large kernels (%) September 20 48 f 48 f 50 e October 5 51 d 50 e 53 b October 15 52 c 52 c 54 a Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different, according to Fisher’s Protected LSD test at p < 0.05. Data are pooled over six experiments. Adequate control of thrips continues to be very important to optimize yield in North Carolina. A trial was conducted from 2013 through 2016 with the variety Bailey to determine the influence of planting date on thrips control and peanut yield with combinations of Thimet applied in the seed furrow and acephate applied two weeks after peanut emergence. While several interactions were noted, the value of adequate thrips control is summarized in Table 3-22. Although both Thimet and acephate protected yield, the combination of both insecticides provided the greatest protection of yield. Thrips pressure was high during 2013 at this location during all of May and well into June. During 2014, results were slightly different than in 2013. The value of acephate was less pronounced in 2014, with the in-furrow treatment the most effective approach. Thrips injury was higher in 2013 than 2014 and most likely contributed to the minor impact of acephate on yield. Peanut did not respond to insecticide during 2015. While this fact was surprising, in some years peanuts are able to recover quickly from thrips feeding and yield is not reduced. In 2016, either Thimet or acephate increased yield about the same with the combination of both insecticides increasing yield only slight more than either product alone.42 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 3-22. Interactions of Thimet and Acephate Spray Programs at Lewiston-Woodville during 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016 Insecticide 2013 2014 2015 2016 In-furrow Post- emergence Thrips Damage (Scale 0-5) Pod Yield in lb/acre (yield increase over nontreated control) Thrips Damage (Scale 0 – 5) Pod Yield in lb/acre (yield increase over nontreated control) Thrips Damage (Scale 0 – 5) Pod Yield in lb/acre (yield increase over nontreated control) Thrips Damage (Scale 0 – 5) Pod Yield in lb/acre (yield increase over nontreated control) No Thimet No acephate 3.3 5,232 2.3 4,741 2.6 5,238 2.4 4,823 Thimet No acephate 1.1 5,651 (384) 0.7 4,982 (241) 0.8 5,246 (8) 0.7 5,074 (251) No Thimet acepthate 1.7 5,642 (278) 1.0 4,780 (39) 1.0 5,295 (49) 1.1 5,015 (192) Thimet acephate 0.5 5,878 (645) 0.4 4,972 (231) 0.3 5,278 (40) 0.3 5,115 (292) Data are pooled over planting dates.2018 Peanut Information | 43 Thrips damage is generally more severe with early plantings in North Carolina due to cooler weather early in the season, which slows peanut growth and allows thrips damage to have a greater impact on plant recovery. Thrips populations can be lower when peanuts emerge from later plantings. In a second trial involving planting dates at this location, the value of treating seed with fungicide was apparent relative to peanut yield at all three planting dates (Table 3-23). Yield was most likely lower due to poorer stands and less seedling vigor when seed was not treated with fungicide. Soil was cold and damp during early and mid-May. The lower stands and yields when planting during that period of time were clearly demonstrated when seed without a fungicide treatment were planted. Drs. Brandenburg and Shew will have more information on thrips management and seedling disease management in their respective chapters. Table 3-23. Influence of Planting Date and Fungicide Seed Treatment on Peanut Stand and Pod Yield at Lewiston-Woodville during 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016. Data are pooled over insecticide treatments. Planting Date Peanut Stand (Plants/20 ft of row) Pod yield (lb/acre) Fungicide Seed Treatment Fungicide Seed Treatment No Yes No Yes 2013 May 4 56 80 2,597 4,544 May 16 55 72 4,736 5,420 May 28 71 86 5,273 6,001 2014 May 4 21 52 3,937 4,860 May 19 36 56 4,148 4,476 May 28 17 48 3,022 4,187 2015 May 4 45 95 4,024 4,535 May 19 73 102 5,703 5,803 May 28 75 83 4,912 5,503 2016 May 2 3 77 680 4,735 May 19 3 67 1,336 5,723 May 28 66 80 4,334 4,83344 | 2018 Peanut Information RUNNER MARKET TYPES There is some demand for runner market type peanut production in North Carolina. Part of this interest is related to market demand and sheller operations in the region. Runner production is also appealing to some growers because of potential savings in production of runners compared with Virginia market type peanuts (approximately 110 pounds of seed for runners versus 125 to 160 pounds of seed for Virginia market types and lower requirements for supplemental calcium by runner market types). Yield of runner market types often perform as well as the Virginia types. CULTURAL PRACTICES AND TOMATO SPOTTED WILT VIRUS Tomato spotted wilt virus can be a problem in North Carolina, with no control practices available after peanuts have been planted. Planting peanuts in reduced-tillage systems (no till or strip till), seeding peanuts at higher rates (establishing four or more plants per row foot in single rows), planting twin rows, applying Thimet or Phorate in furrow, delaying planting until mid-May, planting tolerant varieties, and maintaining good soil fertility can lessen the impact of tomato spotted wilt on peanut growth and yield. However, each of these cultural practices presents a range of risks and benefits. A tomato spotted wilt virus advisory is provided in chapter 5. PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS Apogee and Kudos (prohexadione calcium) are registered for use in peanuts. Research has demonstrated that prohexadione calcium improves row definition, which can lead to increased efficiency in the digging and inversion process. Prohexadione calcium should be applied when 50 percent of vines from adjacent rows are touching (Figure 3-5). Sequential applications (7.2 ounces per acre followed by 7.2 ounces per acre) spaced two to three weeks apart are generally needed. Include crop oil concentrate and nitrogen solution (UAN) or ammonium sulfate with prohexadione calcium. Depending upon growing conditions, soil fertility, frequency of rainfall and irrigation, and variety selection, row visibility obtained in mid-August may not be sufficient through digging. Research suggests that in addition to increased row visibility, prohexadione calcium minimizes pod shed and pod loss during digging and harvesting operations. When pooled over 121 trials from 1997 to 2014, yield following two applications of prohexadione calcium was 96 pounds per acre higher than yield from nontreated peanut (4,223 versus 4,319 pounds per acre). Some environmental conditions and subsequent vine growth were not excessive in some of the trials in this data set, suggesting that the yield difference may be underestimated. However, in recent years with the variety Bailey, very few differences in yield with prohexadione calcium have been noted. While prohexadione calcium always improves row visibility, this characteristic has not always translated into yield increases with prohexadione calcium. The lack of yield response may be 2018 Peanut Information | 45 associated with pod retention for Bailey, which would limit the value of prohexadione calcium in terms of yield increase. The peanut industry is transitioning to varieties expressing the high oleic trait (Sullivan and Wynne). Sullivan may become a widely used variety in the coming years. The morphological or growth habit of Sullivan is different from that of Bailey in that its foliage is less robust than Bailey’s growth habit. This characteristic may minimize the need for prohexadione calcium in terms of row visibility. However, in 2017 many growers applied prohexadione calcium to Sullivan because growing conditions resulted in robust growth for this variety.46 | 2018 Peanut Information 4. PEANUT WEED MANAGEMENT David L. Jordan Extension Specialist—Department of Crop and Soil Sciences Effective weed management is essential for profitable peanut production. Peanuts are not very competitive with weeds and thus require higher levels of weed control than most other agronomic crops to avoid yield losses. Weeds may also decrease digging efficiency, so effective late-season weed control can minimize losses during harvest. A weed management program in peanuts consists of good weed control in rotational crops; cultivation, if needed; establishment of a satisfactory stand and growing a competitive crop; and proper selection and use of herbicides. Finally, weeds interfere with fungicide movement into the peanut canopy, often referred to as deposition, and this can negatively affect disease control. CROP ROTATION Rotate peanuts with corn or cotton to help manage various pests, including weeds. Crop rotation allows the use of different herbicides on the same field in different years. Crop and herbicide rotation, along with good weed control in the rotational crops, helps prevent the buildup of problem weeds and helps keep the overall weed population at lower levels. Crop rotation will also help reduce the chance of developing populations of weeds that are resistant to herbicides. CULTIVATION Cultivation can supplement chemical weed control. However, cultivation can damage the crop and reduce yield if not done properly. Moving soil onto the lower branches and around the base of the plants causes physical damage and enhances development of stem and pod diseases. Deep cultivation also destroys residual herbicide barriers and brings up additional weed seeds. Cultivate when peanuts are small. Set sweeps to run flat and shallow to avoid throwing soil onto the peanut plants. Generally, in-season cultivation of peanuts is not recommended. WEED SCOUTING All fields, regardless of the crop being grown, should be surveyed for weeds between mid-August and the first killing frost. Record the weed species present and note the general level of infestation of each species (light, moderate, or heavy). Weeds present in the fall will be the ones most likely to be problems the following year. Knowing what problems to expect allows you to better plan a weed management program for the following crop.2018 Peanut Information | 47 Scout peanut fields weekly from planting through mid-July to determine if or when postemergence herbicide treatment is needed. Proper weed identification is necessary because species respond differently to various herbicides. Contact your county Extension center for aid in weed identification. Timely application of postemergence herbicides is critical for effective control. Cultivation may be more appropriate if herbicide-resistant biotypes increase in prevalence. WebHADSS (Herbicide Application Decision Support System), a computer-based program designed to assist in making decisions pertaining to postemergence herbicide applications, is available online through NC State Extension (www.webhadss.ncsu.edu). Weed density, predicted crop value, predicted weed-free crop yield, herbicide and application costs, and herbicide efficacy are used to develop a ranking of the economics of herbicide options for a specific weed complex. This approach does not consider the long-term effect of weed seed production if weeds are not controlled. More importantly, allowing herbicide-resistant biotypes to reproduce, especially when they are first appearing in fields, can result in a tremendous long-term problem. The patchiness of weeds in each field and the time needed to scout fields are limitations to this approach. However, this decision support system is beneficial in explaining herbicide options. Listed below are the competitive index values assigned to weeds typically found in North Carolina peanut fields (Table 4-1). Cocklebur, with a ranking of 10, is considered the most competitive weed in peanut. Table 4-1. Competitive Indices for Weeds in Peanut* Weed Rank Weed Rank Common cocklebur 10.0 Fall panicum 1.8 Jimsonweed 5.8 Florida pusley 1.5 Common lambsquarters 5.2 Tropic croton 1.2 Smartweed 4.7 Dayflower 1.2 Redroot pigweed 4.0 Common purslane 1.2 Common ragweed 3.8 Prickly sida 1.2 Sicklepod 3.6 Horsenettle 1.1 Pitted morningglory 3.6 Yellow nutsedge 0.3 Entireleaf morningglory 3.2 Purple nutsedge 0.2 Velvetleaf 3.0 Goosegrass 0.2 Broadleaf signalgrass 1.8 Crabgrass 0.2 Eclipta 1.8*10 = most competitive weed The combined effect of interference by the weed complex is used to predict yield loss in the WebHADSS program. For example, a weed complex containing one Palmer amaranth, five yellow nutsedge, four broadleaf signalgrass, and one sicklepod per 100 square feet (33 feet of row with rows spaced 3 feet apart) would reduce peanut yield by 16 percent, based on a projected weed-free yield of 4,500 pounds per acre (Table 4-2). Using WebHADSS and given a crop value of $535 per ton, adequate growing 48 | 2018 Peanut Information conditions (good soil moisture for satisfactory herbicide performance), and large size weeds (at least 4 inches tall), WebHADSS would provide the suggestions in Table 4-3 with various economic returns. In this example, peanuts were planted May 6 and emerged May 14. The field was scouted June 4 and herbicide sprayed soon thereafter. Although issues relative to accuracy and time required for weed scouting do exist, the WebHADSS program does allow a relatively quick and clear comparison of herbicide options while taking herbicide efficacy, herbicide cost, and economic return from that investment into account. Table 4-2. Potential Yield and Economic Losses if Weeds Are Not Controlled as Compared to Weed-free Peanuts* Weed Species Population Yield Loss (lb per acre) Yield Loss (% of weed-free yield) Economic Loss ($ per acre) Palmer amaranth 1 180 4.0 48 Sicklepod 1 162 3.6 43 Signalgrass 4 324 7.2 87 Yellow nutsedge 5 66 1.5 18 Total Estimated Loss 734 16.3 196 *Anticipated yield of 4,500 pounds per acre and crop value of $535 per ton farmer stock peanuts. Table 4-3. Ranking of Selected Herbicide Options Considering Efficacy and Economics* Herbicide Gain by Applying Herbicide ($ per acre) Cost of Weed Control ($ per acre) Paraquat 170 5.1 Cadre + 2,4-DB 144 29 Clethodim then Storm + 2,4-DB 121 33 *Herbicide options other than these were listed. Includes adjuvant and application costs. Follow up applications of herbicides would be needed in most fields to obtain season-long weed control. COMMENTS ON PEANUT HERBICIDES Preplant Burndown Herbicides Glyphosate (various formulations) and Gramoxone SL (other formulations are available) are relatively nonselective herbicides that control many of the winter weeds present in reduced tillage fields (Table 4-4). Harmony Extra and 2,4-D (various formulations) can also be applied. Harmony Extra can be applied no closer to planting than 45 days before planting. 2,4-D should be applied at least 30 days before planting.2018 Peanut Information | 49 Preplant Incorporated, Preemergence, and Postemergence Herbicides Numerous herbicides are labeled for use in peanuts (Tables 4-5, 4-6, 4-7). Timely application of the appropriate herbicide at the correct rate is essential for successful weed control in peanuts. Additional information on feeding restrictions of peanut hay (Table 4-8), suggested rain-free period to maintain control (Table 4-9), and rotation restrictions on herbicide use (Table 4-10) are provided. Reduced Rates of Herbicides When crop prices are low, producers are looking for ways to reduce production costs. One possibility is to reduce the application rate of herbicides. Under certain environmental conditions and with certain weed species or weed complexes, specific herbicides can be applied below the manufacturer’s suggested use rate without sacrificing weed control. However, growers are cautioned that herbicides applied at reduced rates often do not control weeds adequately when environmental conditions (soil moisture in particular) do not favor herbicide activity. Applying herbicides at reduced rates to large weeds or weeds that are “hardened” often results in poor control as well. Weeds can also be more difficult to control if they were injured by herbicide with previous treatment. Using reduced rates will require that growers apply herbicides in a more timely manner and when weeds are not stressed. Regardless of the previously mentioned factors relative to reduced rates, manufacturers of herbicides will not back up their products when they are applied below the suggested use rate. Liability falls exclusively to the grower. COMPATIBILITY OF AGROCHEMICALS Compatibility is an important consideration when applying two or more products in the same tank. See chapter 9 for more information on agrochemical compatibility. Consult product labels, chapter 9, and your county Extension agent for more information on agricultural chemical compatibility.50 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 4-4. Weed Responses to Herbicides Applied Prior to Peanut Planting in Reduced Tillage Systems1,3 Species Gramoxone SL Glyphosate 2,4-D Glyphosate + Harmony Extra Glyphosate + 2,4-D Glyphosate + Valor SX2 Bluegrass GE E N E E E Buttercup E E G E E E Chickweed E E P E E E Curly dock NP E F E FG G Geranium GE PF PF GE F GE Henbit E E FG E E E Horseweed PF GE GE E E E Mustard FG FG GE GE E E Primrose PF F E FG E G Ryegrass G E N E E E Small grains GE E N E E E Swinecress P FG F GE G E 1 Gramoxone SL can be applied after peanut emergence; see notes in Table 4-7. Glyphosate (various formations) can be applied at or before ground cracking. 2,4-D (various formulations) should be applied 3 or more weeks before planting. Harmony Extra cannot be applied closer than 45 days prior to planting. See specific product labels for tank mixtures with these herbicides. 2 Valor SX can be applied prior to planting up to 2 days after planting. See product label for information on sprayer cleanout. 3 E = excellent control, 90% or better; G = good control, 80 to 90%; F = fair control, 50 to 80%; P = poor control, 25 to 50%; N = no control, less than 25%.2018 Peanut Information | 51 CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL IN PEANUTS Control of witchweed is part of the State/Federal Quarantine Program. Contact the N.C. Department of Agriculture, Plant Industry Division, at 1-800-206-9333. Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Preplant Incorporated, Annual grasses and small-seeded broadleaf weeds alachlor, MOA 15 (Intrro 4 EC) 2 to 3 (2 to 3 qt) Incorporate no deeper than 2 inches; see label for specific instructions. Unless shallowly incorporated, Intrro is more consistently effective when applied preemergence. Weak on Texas panicum. Do not apply more than 3 qt of Intrro per acre per season. Before using Intrro, check with buyers to determine if there are marketing restrictions on Intrro-treated peanuts. acetochlor, MOA 15 (Warrant 3 ME) 0.94 to 1.5 (1.25 to 2 qt) Apply and incorporate in top 2 inches of soil. Do not apply more than 4 qt of Warrant per acre per year. ethalfluralin, MOA 3 (Sonalan 3 EC) 0.56 to 0.75 (1.5 to 2 pt) Controls common annual grasses including Texas panicum. Use 3 pt Prowl or 2 pt ethalfluralin for control of broadleaf signalgrass, Texas panicum, and fall panicum. Incorporate 3 inches deep for Texas panicum; otherwise, incorporate 2 to 3 inches deep. See labels for maximum waiting period between application and incorporation. Immediate incorporation is best. Dual Magnum, Outlook, or Warrant may be tank mixed with Prowl or Sonalanto suppress yellow nutsedge. pendimethalin, MOA 3 (Prowl H2O 3.8 EC) (Prowl 3.3 EC) 0.71 to 1.43 (1.5 to 3 pt) (1.7 to 3.5 pt) Preplant Incorporated, Annual grasses, small-seeded broadleaf weeds, and nutsedge dimethenamid, MOA 15 (Outlook 6.0 L) 0.75 to 1 (16 to 21 fl oz) Apply and incorporate in top 2 inches of soil within 14 days of planting. Use high rate of Dual Magnum, Dual, or Outlook for yellow nutsedge and broadleaf signalgrass. Not effective on purple nutsedge. Weak on Texas panicum. May be tank mixed with Prowl or Sonalan. metolachlor, MOA 15 (Dual Magnum 7.62 EC) (Dual 8 EC) 0.95 to 1.27 (1 to 1.33 pt) (1.5 to 2 pt)52 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Preplant Incorporated, Broadleaf weeds and suppression of nutsedge diclosulam, MOA 2 (Strongarm 84 WDG) 0.024 (0.45 oz) Effective on common cocklebur, morningglory, common ragweed, eclipta, and common lambsquarters. Suppresses yellow and purple nutsedge. Does not control sicklepod. More effective when applied in combination with Dual, Outlook, Warrant, Prowl, or Sonalan. See label for rotation restrictions, especially corn and grain sorghum. Growers are cautioned that Strongarm can occasionally injure cotton the following year on soils with a shallow hardpan (less than 10 inches) and/or loam soils. Cotton grown under early season stress resulting from conditions such as excessively cool, wet, dry, or crusted soils may be particularly susceptible to carryover of Strongarm. The rotation interval between applying Strongarm to peanut and then planting cotton is 18 months in Camden, Currituck, Pasquotank, and Perquimans counties. Some weed species have developed resistance to Strongarm including common ragweed and Palmer amaranth. Preplant Incorporated, Annual grasses, broadleaf weeds, and suppression of nutsedge diclosulam, MOA 2 Strongarm + pendimethalin, MOA 3 (Prowl H2O 3.8 EC) (Prowl 3.3 EC) or ethalfluralin, MOA 3 (Sonalan 3 EC) or metolachlor, MOA 15 (Dual Magnum 7.62 EC) (Dual 8 EC) or dimethenamid (Outlook 6.0 L) or acetochlor (Warrant 3 ME) 0.024 (0.45 oz) + 0.71 to 1.43 (1.5 to 3 pt) (1.7 to 3.5 pt) or 0.56 to 0.75 (1.5 to 2 pt) or 0.95 to 1.27 (1 to 1.33 pt) (1.5 to 2 pt) or 0.75 to 1 (16 to 21 fl oz) or 0.95 to 1.5 (1.24 to 2 qt) Effective on annual grasses, common cocklebur, common ragweed, eclipta, morningglory, and common lambsquarters. Suppresses purple and yellow nutsedge. Does not control sicklepod. See Strongarm label for rotation restrictions.2018 Peanut Information | 53 Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks PPI followed by PRE, Annual grasses, broadleaf weeds, and suppression of nutsedge pendimethalin, MOA 3 (Prowl H2O 3.8 EC) (Prowl 3.3 EC) or ethalfluralin, MOA 3 (Sonalan 3 EC) or metolachlor, MOA 15 (Dual Magnum 7.62 EC) (Dual 8 EC) or dimethenamid, MOA 15 (Outlook 6.0L) or acetochlor, MOA 15 (Warrant 3 ME) followed by diclosulam, MOA 2 (Strongarm 84 WDG) or flumioxazin, MOA 14 (Valor SX 51 WDG) 0.71 to 1.43 (1.5 to 3 pt) (1.7 to 3.5 pt) or 0.56 to 0.75 (1.5 to 2 pt) or 0.95 to 1.27 (1 to 1.33 pt) (1.5 to 2 pt) or 0.75 to 1 (16 to 21 oz) or 0.95 to 1.5 (1.24 to 2 qt) 0.024 0.45 oz or 0.063 (2 oz) Controls most broadleaf weeds. Will not control sicklepod and is marginal on certain large-seeded broadleaf weeds. Do not incorporate Valor SX. Valor SX should be applied to the soil surface immediately after planting. Significant injury can occur if flumioxazin is incorporated or applied 3 or more days after planting. Significant injury from Valor SX has been noted in some years even when applied according to label recommendations. However, injury is generally transient and does not affect yield. See previous comments about cotton response to Strongarm applied the previous year on some soils. Up to 3 oz per acre of Valor SX can be applied to peanut but injury potential increases. See product label for sprayer cleanup before other uses. Split application (PPI + POST), Most broadleaf weeds and nutsedge imazethapyr, MOA 2 (Pursuit 2 AS) 0.031 + 0.031 (2 + 2 oz) Effective on most common broadleaf weeds and yellow and purple nutsedge. Does not control eclipta, lambsquarters, ragweed, or croton. Pursuit will usually control seedling johnsongrass and foxtails. For control of other annual grasses, Pursuit may be tank mixed with Dual Magnum, Dual, Outlook, Prowl H2O, Prowl, or Sonalan and incorporated. See label for incorporation directions and rotational restrictions. Some weed species have developed resistance to Pursuit. Research in N.C. has generally shown more effective control of a broader spectrum of weeds with split applications of half of the Pursuit applied preplant incorporated followed by the other half applied early postemergence.54 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Preemergence, Annual grasses and small-seeded broadleaf weeds alachlor, MOA 15 (Intrro 4 EC) 2 to 3 (2 to 3 qt) Apply as soon after planting as possible. All four herbicides are weak on Texas panicum. Before using Inntro, check with buyers to determine if there are marketing restrictions on Intrro-treated peanuts. dimethenamid, MOA 15 (Outlook 6.0 L) 0.75 to 1 (16 to 21 fl oz) metolachlor, MOA 15 (Dual Magnum 7.62 EC) (Dual 8 EC) 0.95 to 1.27 (1 to 1.33 pt) (1.5 to 2 pt) acetochlor (Warrant 3 ME) 0.95 to 1.5 (1.25 to 2 qt) Preemergence, Broadleaf weeds flumioxazin, MOA 14 (Valor SX 51 WDG) 0.063 2 oz Apply within 2 days after planting. Significant injury can occur if Valor SX is incorporated or applied 3 or more days after seeding. Controls carpetweed, common lambsquarters, Florida pusley, nightshade, pigweeds, prickly sida, and spotted spurge. Does not control sicklepod, yellow and purple nutsedge, or annual grasses. Morningglory control is marginal where Valor SX is applied at 2 oz per acre. Significant injury from Valor SX has been noted in some years even when applied according to label recommendations. However, injury is generally transient and does not affect yield. Injury may occur if excessive and forceful rainfall occurs when peanut is emerging. Peanut recovers from injury by midseason in most instances. Up to 3 oz per acre of Valor SX can be applied to peanut, but injury potential increases. See product label for comments on sprayer cleanup before other uses.2018 Peanut Information | 55 Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Preemergence, Annual grasses, broadleaf weeds, and suppression of nutsedge flumioxazin, MOA 14 (Valor SX 51 WDG) + metolachlor, MOA 15 (Dual Magnum 7.62 EC) (Dual 8 EC) or dimethenamid, MOA 15 (Outlook 6.0L) or acetlochlor, MOA 15 (Warrant 3 ME) 0.063 (2 oz) + 0.95 to 1.27 (1 to 1.33 pt) 1.5 to 2 pt) or 0.75 to 1 (16 to 21 fl oz) or 0.94 to 1.5 (1.25 to 2 qt) Apply within 2 days after planting. Significant injury can occur if applied 3 or more days after planting. The combination of Valor SX and Dual, Dual Magnum, Warrant, or Outlook does not control sicklepod but will control annual grasses (except Texas panicum) and will suppress yellow nutsedge. Valor SX and Warrant will not suppress yellow nutsedge. Significant injury from Valor SX has been noted in some years even when applied according to label recommendations. However, injury is generally transient and does not affect yield. Injury may occur if excessive and forceful rainfall occurs when peanut is emerging. Peanut recovers from injury by midseason in most instances. Up to 3 oz per acre of Valor SX can be applied to peanut but injury potential increases. See product label for comments on sprayer cleanup before other uses. diclosulam, MOA 2 (Strongarm 84 WDG) 0.024 (0.45 oz) Effective on common cocklebur, morningglory, common ragweed, eclipta, and common lambsquarters. Suppresses yellow and purple nutsedge. Does not control sicklepod. More effective when applied in combination with Dual, Dual Magnum, Outlook, Prowl, Sonalan, or Warrant. See label for rotation restrictions, especially corn and grain sorghum. See previous comments on possible cotton injury from Strongarm applied the previous year on some soils. sulfentrazone, MOA 14 + carfentrazone, MOA 14 (Spartan Charge (0.35 + 3.15 F) 0.07 to 0.12 (3 to 5 fl oz) Do not apply Spartan Charge after peanuts crack soil. Application immediately after planting is advised. See label for specific rates based on soil texture and organic matter content. See product label for comments on application with other herbicides. Rotation restriction for planting cotton following Spartan Charge at recommended rates for peanut is 12 months.56 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Preemergence, Annual grasses, broadleaf weeds, and suppression of nutsedge (continued) diclosulam, MOA 2 (Strongarm 84 WDG) + metolachlor, MOA 15 (Dual Magnum 7.62 EC) (Dual 8 EC) or dimethenamid, MOA 15 (Outlook 6.0 L) or acetolchlor, MOA 15 (Warrant 3 ME) 0.024 (0.45 oz) + 0.95 to 1.27 (1 to 1.33 pt) 1.5 to 2 pt) or 0.75 to 1 (16 to 21 oz) or 0.94 to 1.5 (1.25 to 2 qt) Effective on annual grasses, common cocklebur, common ragweed, eclipta, morningglory, and common lambsquarters. Suppresses purple and yellow nutsedge. Does not control sicklepod. See label for rotation restrictions. Some weed species have developed resistance to Strongarm. See previous comments on carryover potential to cotton on some soils and restrictions on planting corn or grain sorghum after use in peanut. Preemergence, Most annual broadleaf weeds and nutsedge imazethapyr, MOA 2 (Pursuit 2 AS) 0.063 (4 fl oz) Effective on most common broadleaf weeds and yellow and purple nutsedge. Does not control ragweed, eclipta, lambsquarters, or croton. Pursuit may be tank mixed with Dual, Dual Magnum, Warrant, or Outlook for annual grass control. See label for rotational restrictions. Some weed species have developed resistance to Pursuit. Research in N.C. has generally shown more effective control of a broader spectrum of weeds with split applications of half of the Pursuit applied preplant incorporated followed by the other half applied early postemergence. Cracking stage, Emerged annual grasses and broadleaf weeds paraquat, MOA 22 (Gramoxone 2.5 SL) (Parazone 3 SL) 0.13 (8 oz) (5.4 oz) Apply at ground cracking for control of small emerged annual grasses and broadleaf weeds. May be tank mixed with Dual, Dual Magnum, Outlook, or Warrant for residual control. Tank mix may increase injury to emerged peanuts. Add 1 pint nonionic surfactant per 100 gallons spray solution. Follow all safety precautions on label. Applying Basagran at 0.5 pt per acre will reduce injury.2018 Peanut Information | 57 Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Cracking stage and Postemergence, Additional residual control of annual grasses and certain small-seeded broadleaf weeds alachlor, MOA 15 (Intrro 4 EC) 2 to 3 (2 to 3 qt) Use as a supplement to preplant or preemergence herbicides to provide additional residual control of annual grasses and certain small-seeded broadleaf weeds such as pigweed and eclipta. This treatment will not control emerged grasses or broadleaf weeds. See product labels for recommended tank mixtures with contact and systemic herbicides with foliar activity on weeds. dimethenamid, MOA 15 (Outlook 6.0L) 0.75 to 1 (16 to 21 oz) metolachlor, MOA 15 (Dual Magnum 7.62 EC) (Dual 8 EC) 0.95 1 pt 1.5 pt acetochlor, MOA 15 (Warrant 3 ME) 0.95 to 1.5 (1.25 to 2 qt) pyroxasulfone, MOA 15 (Zidua 85 WG) (Zidua 4.25 SC) 0.08 to 0.11 (1.5 to 2.1 oz) (2.4 to 3.3 oz) Cracking stage, Most annual broadleaf weeds and nutsedge imazethapyr, MOA 2 (Pursuit 2 AS) 0.063 (4 oz) Effective on most common broadleaf weeds and yellow and purple nutsedge. Does not control ragweed, eclipta, lambsquarters, or croton. If weeds are emerged, add surfactant or crop oil according to label directions. See label for rotational restrictions. Pursuit may be tank mixed with paraquat. Some weed species have developed resistance to Pursuit. Cracking stage, Some emerged broadleaf weeds and suppression of eclipta and yellow nutsedge diclosulam, MOA 2 (Strongarm 84 WDG) 0.024 (0.45 oz) Strongarm can be applied through the cracking stage. Add 1 quart nonionic surfactant per 100 gallons. The spectrum of weeds controlled is much narrower when applied to emerged weeds. Strongarm will not control emerged common lambsquarters or pigweeds but will control common ragweed and morningglories and will suppress yellow nutsedge and eclipta. See product labels for information on mixing Strongarm with other herbicides. Some weed species have developed resistance to Strongarm. See product label for carryover potential to cotton, corn, and grain sorghum. Strongarm suppresses emerged marestail and dogfennel more effectively than other postemergence broadleaf herbicides when applied to small weeds.58 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Postemergence, Annual broadleaf weeds acifluorfen, MOA 14 (Ultra Blazer 2 L) 0.25 to 0.38 (1 to 1.5 pt) Apply when weeds are small and actively growing. Use minimum of 20 GPA and high pressure (40 to 60 psi). See label for species controlled, maximum weed size to treat, and addition of surfactant. Do not apply more than 2 pints per acre per season. May make sequential applications of 0.25 pound followed by 0.25 pound per acre. Allow at least 15 days between sequential applications. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. acifluorfen, MOA 14 (Ultra Blazer 2 L) + 2,4-DB, MOA 4 (Butyrac 200 2 L) 0.25 to 0.38 (1 to 1.5 pt) + 0.25 (16 fl oz) Addition of 2,4-DB to Ultra Blazer improves control of certain weeds when weed size exceeds that specified on the Ultra Blazer label. See label suggestions on use of surfactant or crop oil. Apply when peanuts are at least 2 weeks old and before pod filling begins. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. bentazon, MOA 6 (Basagran 4 L) 0.75 to 1 (1.5 to 2 pt) Apply when weeds are small and actively growing. Use minimum of 20 GPA and high pressure (40 to 60 psi). See label for addition of oil concentrate, species controlled, and maximum weed size to treat. Basagran may also be applied at 1 pint per acre for control of cocklebur, jimsonweed, and smartweed 4 inches or less. Do not apply more than 4 pints of bentazon per acre per season. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. bentazon, MOA 6 (Basagran 4 L) + acifluorfen, MOA 14 (Ultra Blazer 2 L) 0.5 to 1 (1 to 2 pt) + 0.25 to 0.38 (1 to 1.5 pt) See above comments for Ultra Blazer and Basagran. See labels for weeds controlled, maximum weed size to treat, and use of adjuvants. Can be applied as a tank mixture or as Storm 4L. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. bentazon, MOA 6 + acifluorfen, MOA 14 (Storm 4L) 0.5 + 0.25 (1.5 pt) These rates of bentazon and acifluorfen (Ultra Blazer and Basagran) may not provide consistent control of lambsquarters, prickly sida, spurred anoda, and morningglory. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control.2018 Peanut Information | 59 Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Postemergence, Annual broadleaf weeds (continued) bentazon, MOA 6 (Basagran 4 L) + acifluorfen, MOA 14 (Ultra Blazer 2 L) + 2,4-DB, MOA 4 (Butyrac 200 2 L) 0.5 (1 pt) + 0.25 (1 pt) + 0.125 to 0.25 (8 to 16 fl oz) Adding 2,4-DB will improve control of larger morningglory, cocklebur, common ragweed, pigweed, jimsonweed, and citron. Add surfactant or crop oil according to label directions. Apply when peanuts are at least 2 weeks old. Do not apply after pod filling begins. See comments for Ultra Blazer and Basagran alone. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. bentazon, MOA 6 (Basagran 4 L) + 2,4-DB, MOA 4 (Butyrac 200 2 L) 0.75 to 1 1.5 to 2 pt) + 0.125 (8 fl oz) Addition of 2,4-DB to Basagran improves control of morningglories. See above comments for Basagran. Add surfactant or crop oil according to label directions. Do not make more than two applications per year. Apply when peanuts are at least 2 weeks old and not within 45 days of harvest. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. imazapic, MOA 2 (Cadre 2 AS) (Impose 2 AS) 0.063 (4 fl oz) Controls most broadleaf weeds except ragweed, croton, lambsquarters, and eclipta. Apply before weeds exceed 2 to 4 inches; see label for specific weed sizes to treat. Add nonionic surfactant at 1 quart per 100 gallons or crop oil concentrate at 1 quart per acre. A soil-applied grass control herbicide should be used. However, Cadre will usually control escaped broadleaf signalgrass, large crabgrass, fall panicum, and Texas panicum but not goosegrass. Cadre can be mixed with Cobra, Ultra Blazer, and 2,4-DB. See label for rotational restrictions. Some weed species have developed resistance to Cadre. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. imazethapyr, MOA 2 (Pursuit 2 L) 0.063 (4 fl oz) Effective on most common broadleaf weeds and yellow and purple nutsedge. Does not control eclipta, lambsquarters, ragweed, or croton. Apply when weeds are 3 inches tall or less. Add surfactant or crop oil according to label directions. See label for rotational restrictions. Pursuit rmay be tank mixed with Basagran, Ultra Blazer, Gramoxone, and 2,4-DB. Some weed species have developed resistance to Pursuit.60 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Postemergence, Annual broadleaf weeds (continued) 2,4-DB, MOA 4 (Buryrac 200 2 L) 0.2 to 0.25 (12 to 16 fl oz) Effective on cocklebur and morningglory; pitted morningglory may be only partially controlled. Best results achieved when applied to small weeds. May use two applications per year. Do not apply within 45 days before harvest. lactofen, MOA 14 (Cobra 2 EC) 0.2 (12.5 fl oz) Apply after peanuts have at least six true leaves. Apply to actively growing peanut. Controls most annual broadleaf weeds. See label for species controlled and maximum weed size to treat. Add nonionic surfactant at 1 quart per 100 gallons or crop oil concentrate or methylated seed oil at 1 to 2 pints per acre. See label on when to use various adjuvants. Allow at least 14 days between applications. Can be tank mixed with Basagran, Pursuit, Cadre, 2,4-DB, and/or Select. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. lactofen, MOA 14 (Cobra 2 EC) + bentazon, MOA 6 (Basagran 4 L) 0.2 (12.5 fl oz) + 0.75 to 1 (1.5 to 2 pt) See above comments for Basagran and Lactofen alone. See labels for weeds controlled, maximum weed size to treat, and use of adjuvants. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. lactofen, MOA 14 (Cobra 2 EC) + bentazon, MOA 6 (Basagran 4 L) + 2.4-DB, MOA 4 (Butyrac 200 2 L) 0.2 (12.5 fl oz) + 0.75 to 1 (1.5 to 2 pt) + 0.125 to 0.25 (8-16 fl oz) Adding 2,4-DB will improve control of larger morningglory, cocklebur, common ragweed, jimsonweed, and citron. See above comments for bentazon, lactofen, and 2,4-DB. See labels for weeds controlled, maximum weed size to treat, and use of adjuvants. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. lactofen, MOA 14 (Cobra 2 EC) + imazapic, MOA 2 (Cadre 2 AS) (Impose 2 AS) 0.2 (12.5 fl oz) + 0.063 (4 fl oz) See above comments for imazapic and lactofen. See labels for weeds controlled, maximum weed size to treat, and use of adjuvants. Some weed species have developed resistance to Cadre. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. lactofen, MOA 14 (Cobra 2 EC) + imazethapyr, MOA 2 (Pursuit 2 AS) 0.2 (12.5 fl oz) + 0.063 (4 fl oz) See above comments for imazethapyr and lactofen. See labels for weeds controlled, maximum weed size to treat, and use of adjuvants. Some weed species have developed resistance to Pursuit.2018 Peanut Information | 61 Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Postemergence, Annual broadleaf weeds (continued) paraquat, MOA 22 (Gramoxone 2 SL) (Parazone 3 SL) 0.13 (8 fl oz) (5.4 fl oz) See label for weeds controlled and maximum weed size to treat; best results if weeds 1 inches or less. A postemergence application may be made following an at-crack application. Do not make more than two applications per season, do not apply later than 28 days after ground cracking, and do not apply if peanuts are under stress or have significant injury from thrips feeding. Gramoxone is more effective when applied within 2 weeks after peanut emergence. Add 1 pint of nonionic surfactant per 100 gallons of spray solution. Will cause foliar burn on peanuts, but peanuts recover, and yield is not affected. Follow all safety precautions on label. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. paraquat, MOA 22 (Gramoxone 2 SL) (Parazone 3 SL) + bentazon, MOA 6 (Basagran 4 L) 0.13 (8 oz) (5.4 oz) + 0.25 to 0.75 (0.5 to 1.5 pt) See previous comments for paraquat alone. Adding Basagran improves control of common ragweed, prickly sida, smartweed, lambsquarters, and cocklebur and reduces injury to peanuts from paraquat. May be applied any time from ground cracking up to 28 days after ground cracking. Add 1 pint of nonionic surfactant per 100 gallons of spray solution. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control. paraquat, MOA 22 (Gramoxone 2 SL) (Parazone 3 SL) + bentazon, MOA 6 + acifluorfen, MOA 14 (Storm 4 L) 0.13 (8 fl oz) (5.4 fl oz) + 0.5 + 0.25 1 pt See previous comments for paraquat alone. Storm improves control of common ragweed, smartweed, lambsquarters, common cocklebur, tropic croton, and spurred anoda. May be applied anytime from ground cracking up to 28 days after ground cracking. Add 0.5 pint of nonionic surfactant per 100 gallons of spray solution. The mixture of Gramoxone SL and Storm is more injurious than these herbicides applied alone. Can be applied with residual herbicides for improved control.62 | 2018 Peanut Information Table 4-5. Chemical Weed Control in Peanuts Herbicide and Formulation Pounds Active Ingredient Per Acre Precautions and Remarks Postemergence, Florida beggarweed chlorimuron, MOA 2 (Classic 0.25 DF) 0.008 (0.5 oz) Use only for control of Florida beggarweed. Apply from 60 days after crop emergence to within 45 days |
OCLC number | 32194430 |